Topic 6 Electronic, Print and New Media: Their Position in a Political System
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss the concept of mass media with reference to electronic, print
and new media;
Explain the mass media organisation and its functions in the political
system;
Describe the ownership of political press by the political parties in
Malaysia; and
Explain the relationship between the mass media, the government
and the political parties with reference to their position in a political
system.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview of the mass media, with reference to the
electronic, print and new media, and their relationship with politics. The mass
media have a powerful influence on politics. They shape the perceptions that
average people and political leaders hold about the political world. Through the
first discussion, you are expected to understand the meaning of electronic, print
and new media in general. This topic will also discuss mass media organisations
and their function in the political system, and the ownership of political press by
political parties in Malaysia. The aim is to equip you with knowledge of the
relationship between mass media, the government and political parties, which is
essential for a political system to function in a democratic country.
6.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MASS MEDIA
Mass media are the channels carrying messages to a vast, widespread, general
audience. Newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio and films are examples
of mass media. Media are thus communication channels through which news,
entertainment, education, data, or promotional messages are disseminated.
Mass media consist of the following:
(a) Electronic Media
Electronic media are time organised. They are younger than the print media
but lagging behind them in effectiveness. Radio, television, films and theatre
are the main types of electronic medium. Video text, broadcast teletext,
satellites and internet are the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication.
Print Media
Print media includes those media which are controlled by space rather than
time. It can be read at any available time and can be kept for record. Books,
newspapers, magazines and newsletters are examples of print media of
communication.
Static Media
This group of media derives its name from the fact that it does not involve
motion or sound, for instance, posters, wall charts, exhibits, displays, maps
and banners.
New Media
New media most commonly refers to content available on-demand through
the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive
user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media
include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, or wikis, video games,
and social media. Thus, video text, broadcast teletext, satellites and social
media are examples of the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication made possible by new communication technologies.
(b)
(c)
(d)
6.2 ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
Television programmes have significant impact on values, time displacement,
agenda setting and regulations. Exposure to global and domestic television
programmes exert a deep impact on social values, lifestyles of people, and the
relationship of masses with political leaders and with government and its
functionaries in society. Television is considered to be one of the significant
influential channels used in politics and election campaigns.
Radio also remains a politically influential mass medium in the developed world.
Radio news and current affairs programmes, particularly those of public
broadcasters, continue to play a major role in setting the public agenda. The role
of radio in politics has been to mould public opinion, create political mobility, and
to influence political decisions and voting behaviour.
6.2.1 The Concept of Electronic Media and the Electronic Media Organisation
Electronic media comprises the tools of new communication technology such as
television (including satellite TV and web TV), radio (including satellite radio and
web radio) and films (including YouTube). Media in a democratic set up are
acknowledged as important factors as they play a major role in establishing and
strengthening accountability and sustainability of the governments in power. The
media play a significant role in this process and the forum provided by them
during the elections becomes an important platform to present political ideologies
by different political parties.
Electronic media becomes a linkage institution between governments, political
parties, candidates and voters and functions as a channel to convey the messages
of the politicians according to the perceived desires and intent of the voters.
Electronic media in the form of television and internet-abled media are central to
politics today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.
The government, political elites, public and the electronic media influence one
another in a number of ways and on a scale of values. Governments influence the
media by their sourcing of information and by applying different pressures to
achieve and further their political goals.
Electronic media influences the conduct of government officials by raising and
legitimising issues and also influences the public and voters by providing them
political information, which results in changing their values, beliefs, attitudes and
even behaviours. The public influence the media through their viewership,
listenership and/or readership or collectively through the marketplace.
6.2.2 The Politics of Electronic Media
Democracy also builds faith in electoral contestation to gain public office and gives
legitimacy to political parties as primary instruments for acquisition and transfer
of power from one set of individuals to another. Elections are considered to be the
primary and important part of democracy. Elections in democracies demand that
the public have an opportunity to choose the representatives and parties according
to their free will. Elections are about freedom and choice. They are also about
control and constraint.
The exercise of elections provides an opportunity to voters to decide who will
represent them in parliament and this is expressed in a collective manner. Election
and media are considered indispensable to each other. In major political
campaigns, television advertising usually consumes much of the campaign budget
whereas, in the area of news stories, several aspects of media content may
influence political communication.
6.3 THE PRINT MEDIA AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters and
other printed materials. These publications are collectively known as the print
media. The print media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources.
Many news reports on television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about
news that first appears in newspapers.
The top American newspapers, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post,
and the Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for many other media sources. In
Malaysia, the situation is not much difference. The top Malaysian newspapers,
such as the New Straits Times, The Star, Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian, are
seen as the front runners with the regard to setting the agenda for discussion and
policy.
The influence of print media is therefore significant. Regular readers of print media
tend to be more politically active. Many newspapers, for example, are simply the
voices of the political parties. The ruling coalition, Barisan Nasional (BN) has
influence on particular print media, especially newspapers. This is true also with
the opposition, though the circulation may be less as compared with that of the
ruling coalition, which is seen to exert influence on the main stream newspapers
in Malaysia (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Logo of Barisan Nasional (BN)
Source: http://www.barisannasional.org.my/en
6.3.1 The Politics of Print Media
In theory, objective journalism is still a mainstay of daily news coverage. Although
publishers in the US favour one viewpoint or another on their editorial pages, they
usually accord the Democratic and Republican parties equal treatment on their
news pages. Newspapers make their political preference known by endorsing
candidates during election campaigns, but many take pride in supporting the best
person for the job and not basing their endorsements on partisan considerations.
In one sense, however, reporting is not as objective as it used to be, because of the
proliferation of „news analysis‰ stories. Objective, or descriptive, journalism is
typified by the straightforward reporting of facts. However, print reporters today
are faced with a new reality: they cannot compete with the timeliness of television.
Newspapers are published only once a day, while television can report breaking
news instantly.
In order to survive, newspapers have run more human interest stories, more
entertainment stories, and longer news stories that aim to do more than simply
report who, what, when, and where: they also attempt to explain why events
happened as they did and to put them in a larger context. This is interpretative
reporting, and it gives reporters greater license. In such stories, they are not
required to stick to reporting only what they observe; they can also write what
they think about it. This means that newspaper coverage has become increasingly
conjectural.
6.3.2 The Power of Static Media
In the twentieth century, the static media, such as political banners, demonstrated
that they played a significant role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue
pressure groups, and even intra-party communication. Political posters, also
known as conservative communication, also play a major role in politics. Figure
6.2 shows a poster of the general election in Malaysia.
Figure 6.2: A poster of the 13th general election in Malaysia
Source: http://www.malaysia-today.net/who-will-win-ge13/
When television advertisements came on the scene in the 1960s, posters moved
from being a way to present a platform to becoming a way to brand a campaign.
The most basic function of the campaign poster is to present an idealised image of
the candidate.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you understand by the power of electronic media, print media
and new media with reference to the Malaysian political system? Discuss
with your coursemates.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Compare and contrast the concept and role of electronic media, print
media and new media in politics.
6.4 POLITICS AND THE POLITICAL PRESS
Political control of the press is a much talked about subject. This is so because by
controlling the press, news will be published according to the dictates of political
organisations. Hence, the press is made to be another arm for political
organisations and governments.
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership
The largest media firms are owned by the government or by private families.
Media Prima Berhad is a subsidiary media corporation that controls several
television networks, newspapers, and radio stations and is linked to MalaysiaÊs
ruling party UMNO (United Malays National Organisation). Besides Media Prima,
another media corporation is Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) which controls
17 per cent of the television audience. The government owns RTM and operates a
number of radio and television stations in Malaysia. RTM runs 8 national, 16 state,
and 7 district radio stations and two television stations at present (Netto, 2007 as
cited in Munsuet, 2008).
The political parties and their invest
ment companies control the major newspapers
in Malaysia. The Utusan Melayu Group, which is owned by UMNO, publishes
three Malay language dailies and has strong ties to the Prime MinisterÊs ruling
party. The major English newspaper, The Star and New Straits Times (NST), are
also owned by political parties. According to Munsuet (2008), The Star, which has
a daily circulation of 302,658 and 310,950 on Sundays, is owned by the MCA
(Malaysian Chinese Association), a political party in the ruling coalition.
Meanwhile the NST is owned by UMNO (Munsuet, 2008). Besides The Star
newspaper, MCA also controls four other significant media press companies Sin
Chew Jit Poh, Nanyang Siang Pau, China Press, and Guang Ming Daily. Tamil
newspapers such as Malaysia Namban, Makkal Osai and Tamil Nesan are all
owned by the MIC (Malaysian Indian Congress).
The Structure and Power of Political Press
The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century. In 1968, the Malaysia National News Agency, BERNAMA, began
operating (BERNAMA, 2017). In 1984, the Printing and Publications Act enabled
the Minister of Home Affairs to revoke any publications' licenses deemed
dangerous to the state. There is no judicial review, and the ministersÊ decisions are
final. Malaysia is seen as one of the authoritarian and repressive countries
regarding the press (Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani, 2005).
6.4.3 The Element of Political Press
In Malaysia, two opposing positions define the newspapers. The Barisan Nasional
(BN), the ruling coalition, contrasts directly with its opposition. Barisan is assumed
to promote harmony among ethnic groups while the opposition allegedly creates
ethnic conflict. The press in Malaysia fluctuates between ideas about democracy
as being ideal, and elitism as a fact in this classist society.
In 1998, the Malaysian government allowed Malaysia’s first commercial non-
government controlled online newspaper, MalaysiaKini to begin operations. In the
early 2000s, the debate about trying to censor the Internet in Malaysia continued.
In March 2002, both the public and Parliament were split on the issue; half wanted
to see tighter controls and censorship, while the remaining half wanted the
Printing Press laws to be discontinued and the Internet to be free from government
censorship.
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-identify
As technological advancement accelerates, reactions toward new technologies
also elicited resistance and adoption. During the General Election (GE) 2008, the
new media electoral landscape comprised blogs, party websites and alternative
news portals. However, in 2008, BN literally had limited online presence and the
emergence of the Internet was said to have challenged the status quo. In February
2013, two-and-half months before Malaysia’s 13th general elections (GE13), Prime
Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak was quoted widely in the media saying that
the country will experience its first „social media election‰ (Zahiid, 2013). The
significance of his remarks lies in the exponential growth of social media users in
Malaysia over the preceding five years.
According to the Malaysian Digital Association’s (MDA) February 2012 report,
websites of the mainstream media, such as thestar.com.my, utusan.com.my
and bharian.com.my, collected 2,221,763, 1,171,578 and 769,772 unique browsers
respectively (Gomez, 2013). Alternative news websites such as malaysiakini.com
and the malaysianinsider.com collected 1,858,649 and 1,117,124 unique browsers
respectively in the same period, demonstrating strongly their comparative
strength (Gomez, 2013).
Hence, in the run-up to GE13, both media and online data pointed towards social
media as the platform where the online communications of the general elections
would likely be transmitted. The country's opposition coalition was credited
in using new media to overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by
establishment political interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
Communication is increasingly two-way, with the public expecting greater
engagement and interactivity with their political representatives. The Internet and
social media have led to unprecedented complexity in the political communication
process in Malaysia.
6.5 MEDIA, GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL PARTIES
The mass media is often seen as the bridge between the people and the
government. In the following subtopics, the nature of relationship between the
mass media and the government is discussed. The importance of politics to the
media and vice versa cannot be over emphasised. Thus, the type of relationship
between the mass media and political parties is also discussed.
6.5.1 The Nature of Relationship between the Mass Media and the Government
Media and the government are two of the largest institutions within a country.
They were both designed for a common goal: to serve the people. Since 1991,
the press in many developing countries have become more independent and
pluralistic.
Media pluralism has become one of the most vital components of a democratic
society, which in turn is a prerequisite for sustainable social and economic
development. However, theoretically, media pluralism does not exist in Malaysia
because the mainstream media is not independent. Press is required to support the
policies of the government and serve the state.
All the media and press acts, the Printing Presses Acts, the Internal Security Act,
and the Control and Import Acts give the Ministry of Information and the censors
authority to ban imported and domestic material in Malaysia. There are few
federal laws that restrict officials from providing journalists with information,
unless the information has an effect on national security or the military.
Government officials are directed not to talk with journalists or correspondents, if
they deem the information sensitive. Thus, according to Freedom House’s Annual
Freedom of the Press report, in 2015, Malaysia scored as „Partly Free‰, with
middling results in freedom, civil liberties and political rights.
6.5.2 The Types of Relationship between the Mass
Media and Political Parties
The media is essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible
without media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote and
the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process where
voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties,
policies, candidates and the election process itself in order to make informed
choices.
Inherent to this task is the entitlement of parties and candidates to use the
media as a platform for interaction with the public. Furthermore, the Electoral
Management Body (EMB) has a need to communicate information to the electorate
and to a variety of other groups, including the political parties and candidates.
The numerous ways in which media ensure democratic electoral processes
generally fall into one of the following types:
(a)
Media as Transparency Mechanism/Watchdog
Media as a mechanism for transparency ensures voters are provided
information necessary to fully evaluate the conduct of officials as well as the
process at large. Media presence at voting and counting centres is critical to
prevent electoral fraud, given that full measures protecting freedom of
speech are guaranteed, and that the media are ideally free to act
independently and with impartiality.
Media as Campaign Platform
Candidates and parties use the mass media for campaigning through
sponsored direct access spots, paid political advertising, televised debates,
use of social media and other mechanisms.
(b)
(c)
Media as Open Forum for Debate and Discussion/Public Voice
Media provide a mechanism for regular citizens to be heard and therefore to
influence political agendas and campaign platforms, and sometimes to
garner support and influence fellow voters.
Media as Public Educator
Media as a campaign platform ensures the public is educated in political
agendas of all participating political parties and candidates equally. Media
as open forum for debate and discussion ensures that voters can educate
other voters, politicians and officials.
(d)
ACTIVITY 6.2
1.
There is a statement that „mass media is to act as a bridge between
the people and the government‰. Discuss the statement based on
the political system in your country.
Explain the relationship between the mass media and political
parties and discuss which one/ones is/are best for Malaysia’s
political parties.
2.
•
Mass media consists of three types: electronic media, print media and static
media. As media communication technology advances, the new media (social
media, digital media) has become the newly emerging media platform for
instant mass communication.
The electronic media plays a significant role to convey the process and to
provide the forum during the election days; it has become an important
platform to present political ideologies of different political parties.
Electronic media in the form of television and the Internet are central to politics
today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.
•
•
•
•
•
Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically active.
Political banners have a role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue
pressure groups, and intra-party communication.
The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century.
The country's opposition coalition was credited for using new media to
overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by establishment political
interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
The relationship between mass media and political parties can be divided into
the following: media as transparency mechanism or watchdog, media as a
campaign platform, media as an open forum for debate and discussion or
public voice and media as public educator.
•
•
Barisan Nasional (BN)
Campaign platform
Control and Import Acts
Electoral Management Body (EMB)
Electronic media
General election (GE)
Government
Internal Security Act
Malaysian Digital Association (MDA)
Mass communication
Mass media
Media pluralism
New media
Political parties
Political system
Printed media
Printing and Publications Act
Public educator
Static media
Transparency mechanism
Anuar, M. K. (2005). Politics and the media in Malaysia. Kasarinlan: Philippine
Journal of Third World Studies, 20(1), 25 47.
Asiuzzaman, Md. (2009). Media pluralism and development in Malaysia: A third
eye view. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/23983152/Media_Pluralism_and_Developmen
t_in_Malaysia_A_Third_Eye_View
BERNAMA. (2017). About BERNAMA. Retrieved from
http://www.bernama.com/aboutbernama/bi/about-bernama.htm
Djankov, S., McLiesh, C., Nenova, T., & Shleifer, A. (2001). Who owns the media?
Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Drusch, A. (2012). The power of the political poster. Retrieved from
http://www.politico.com/story/2012/05/the-power-of-the-poster-075888
Fielding, S. (2011). Posters and politics. Retrieved from
http://www.nottspolitics.org/2011/07/21/posters-and-politics
Gomez, J. (2013). Malaysia's 13th general election: Social media and its political
impact. Retrieved from
http://mediamalaysia.net/wp-
content/uploads/2013/09/GE13_Social_Media_James_Gomez-090913.pdf.
Leong, P. (2015). Political communication in Malaysia: A study on the use of new
media in politics. eJournal of eDemocracy & Open Government, 7(1), 46 71.
Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani. (2005). Media freedom in Malaysia. Journal of
Contemporary Asia, 35(3), 341 367.
Munsuet. (2008). Ownership of traditional media by the government.
Retrieved from
http://mediainmalaysia.blogspot.com/2008/11/ownership-of-traditional-
media-by.html
Weiss, M. L. (2012). Politics in cyberspace: New media in Malaysia. Berlin,
Germany: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Yaser, N., Mahsud, M. N., & Chaudhry, I. A. (2011). Effects of exposure to
electronic media political content on voters voting behavior. Berkeley
Journal of Social Sciences, 1(4), 1 22.
Zahiid, S. (2013). Najib: Election 2013 first social media election. The Malaysian
Insider. Retrieved from
http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/najibelection-
2013-first-social-media-election
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss the concept of mass media with reference to electronic, print
and new media;
Explain the mass media organisation and its functions in the political
system;
Describe the ownership of political press by the political parties in
Malaysia; and
Explain the relationship between the mass media, the government
and the political parties with reference to their position in a political
system.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview of the mass media, with reference to the
electronic, print and new media, and their relationship with politics. The mass
media have a powerful influence on politics. They shape the perceptions that
average people and political leaders hold about the political world. Through the
first discussion, you are expected to understand the meaning of electronic, print
and new media in general. This topic will also discuss mass media organisations
and their function in the political system, and the ownership of political press by
political parties in Malaysia. The aim is to equip you with knowledge of the
relationship between mass media, the government and political parties, which is
essential for a political system to function in a democratic country.
6.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MASS MEDIA
Mass media are the channels carrying messages to a vast, widespread, general
audience. Newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio and films are examples
of mass media. Media are thus communication channels through which news,
entertainment, education, data, or promotional messages are disseminated.
Mass media consist of the following:
(a) Electronic Media
Electronic media are time organised. They are younger than the print media
but lagging behind them in effectiveness. Radio, television, films and theatre
are the main types of electronic medium. Video text, broadcast teletext,
satellites and internet are the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication.
Print Media
Print media includes those media which are controlled by space rather than
time. It can be read at any available time and can be kept for record. Books,
newspapers, magazines and newsletters are examples of print media of
communication.
Static Media
This group of media derives its name from the fact that it does not involve
motion or sound, for instance, posters, wall charts, exhibits, displays, maps
and banners.
New Media
New media most commonly refers to content available on-demand through
the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive
user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media
include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, or wikis, video games,
and social media. Thus, video text, broadcast teletext, satellites and social
media are examples of the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication made possible by new communication technologies.
(b)
(c)
(d)
6.2 ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
Television programmes have significant impact on values, time displacement,
agenda setting and regulations. Exposure to global and domestic television
programmes exert a deep impact on social values, lifestyles of people, and the
relationship of masses with political leaders and with government and its
functionaries in society. Television is considered to be one of the significant
influential channels used in politics and election campaigns.
Radio also remains a politically influential mass medium in the developed world.
Radio news and current affairs programmes, particularly those of public
broadcasters, continue to play a major role in setting the public agenda. The role
of radio in politics has been to mould public opinion, create political mobility, and
to influence political decisions and voting behaviour.
6.2.1 The Concept of Electronic Media and the Electronic Media Organisation
Electronic media comprises the tools of new communication technology such as
television (including satellite TV and web TV), radio (including satellite radio and
web radio) and films (including YouTube). Media in a democratic set up are
acknowledged as important factors as they play a major role in establishing and
strengthening accountability and sustainability of the governments in power. The
media play a significant role in this process and the forum provided by them
during the elections becomes an important platform to present political ideologies
by different political parties.
Electronic media becomes a linkage institution between governments, political
parties, candidates and voters and functions as a channel to convey the messages
of the politicians according to the perceived desires and intent of the voters.
Electronic media in the form of television and internet-abled media are central to
politics today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.
The government, political elites, public and the electronic media influence one
another in a number of ways and on a scale of values. Governments influence the
media by their sourcing of information and by applying different pressures to
achieve and further their political goals.
Electronic media influences the conduct of government officials by raising and
legitimising issues and also influences the public and voters by providing them
political information, which results in changing their values, beliefs, attitudes and
even behaviours. The public influence the media through their viewership,
listenership and/or readership or collectively through the marketplace.
6.2.2 The Politics of Electronic Media
Democracy also builds faith in electoral contestation to gain public office and gives
legitimacy to political parties as primary instruments for acquisition and transfer
of power from one set of individuals to another. Elections are considered to be the
primary and important part of democracy. Elections in democracies demand that
the public have an opportunity to choose the representatives and parties according
to their free will. Elections are about freedom and choice. They are also about
control and constraint.
The exercise of elections provides an opportunity to voters to decide who will
represent them in parliament and this is expressed in a collective manner. Election
and media are considered indispensable to each other. In major political
campaigns, television advertising usually consumes much of the campaign budget
whereas, in the area of news stories, several aspects of media content may
influence political communication.
6.3 THE PRINT MEDIA AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters and
other printed materials. These publications are collectively known as the print
media. The print media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources.
Many news reports on television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about
news that first appears in newspapers.
The top American newspapers, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post,
and the Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for many other media sources. In
Malaysia, the situation is not much difference. The top Malaysian newspapers,
such as the New Straits Times, The Star, Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian, are
seen as the front runners with the regard to setting the agenda for discussion and
policy.
The influence of print media is therefore significant. Regular readers of print media
tend to be more politically active. Many newspapers, for example, are simply the
voices of the political parties. The ruling coalition, Barisan Nasional (BN) has
influence on particular print media, especially newspapers. This is true also with
the opposition, though the circulation may be less as compared with that of the
ruling coalition, which is seen to exert influence on the main stream newspapers
in Malaysia (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Logo of Barisan Nasional (BN)
Source: http://www.barisannasional.org.my/en
6.3.1 The Politics of Print Media
In theory, objective journalism is still a mainstay of daily news coverage. Although
publishers in the US favour one viewpoint or another on their editorial pages, they
usually accord the Democratic and Republican parties equal treatment on their
news pages. Newspapers make their political preference known by endorsing
candidates during election campaigns, but many take pride in supporting the best
person for the job and not basing their endorsements on partisan considerations.
In one sense, however, reporting is not as objective as it used to be, because of the
proliferation of „news analysis‰ stories. Objective, or descriptive, journalism is
typified by the straightforward reporting of facts. However, print reporters today
are faced with a new reality: they cannot compete with the timeliness of television.
Newspapers are published only once a day, while television can report breaking
news instantly.
In order to survive, newspapers have run more human interest stories, more
entertainment stories, and longer news stories that aim to do more than simply
report who, what, when, and where: they also attempt to explain why events
happened as they did and to put them in a larger context. This is interpretative
reporting, and it gives reporters greater license. In such stories, they are not
required to stick to reporting only what they observe; they can also write what
they think about it. This means that newspaper coverage has become increasingly
conjectural.
6.3.2 The Power of Static Media
In the twentieth century, the static media, such as political banners, demonstrated
that they played a significant role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue
pressure groups, and even intra-party communication. Political posters, also
known as conservative communication, also play a major role in politics. Figure
6.2 shows a poster of the general election in Malaysia.
Figure 6.2: A poster of the 13th general election in Malaysia
Source: http://www.malaysia-today.net/who-will-win-ge13/
When television advertisements came on the scene in the 1960s, posters moved
from being a way to present a platform to becoming a way to brand a campaign.
The most basic function of the campaign poster is to present an idealised image of
the candidate.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you understand by the power of electronic media, print media
and new media with reference to the Malaysian political system? Discuss
with your coursemates.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Compare and contrast the concept and role of electronic media, print
media and new media in politics.
6.4 POLITICS AND THE POLITICAL PRESS
Political control of the press is a much talked about subject. This is so because by
controlling the press, news will be published according to the dictates of political
organisations. Hence, the press is made to be another arm for political
organisations and governments.
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership
The largest media firms are owned by the government or by private families.
Media Prima Berhad is a subsidiary media corporation that controls several
television networks, newspapers, and radio stations and is linked to MalaysiaÊs
ruling party UMNO (United Malays National Organisation). Besides Media Prima,
another media corporation is Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) which controls
17 per cent of the television audience. The government owns RTM and operates a
number of radio and television stations in Malaysia. RTM runs 8 national, 16 state,
and 7 district radio stations and two television stations at present (Netto, 2007 as
cited in Munsuet, 2008).
The political parties and their invest
ment companies control the major newspapers
in Malaysia. The Utusan Melayu Group, which is owned by UMNO, publishes
three Malay language dailies and has strong ties to the Prime MinisterÊs ruling
party. The major English newspaper, The Star and New Straits Times (NST), are
also owned by political parties. According to Munsuet (2008), The Star, which has
a daily circulation of 302,658 and 310,950 on Sundays, is owned by the MCA
(Malaysian Chinese Association), a political party in the ruling coalition.
Meanwhile the NST is owned by UMNO (Munsuet, 2008). Besides The Star
newspaper, MCA also controls four other significant media press companies Sin
Chew Jit Poh, Nanyang Siang Pau, China Press, and Guang Ming Daily. Tamil
newspapers such as Malaysia Namban, Makkal Osai and Tamil Nesan are all
owned by the MIC (Malaysian Indian Congress).
The Structure and Power of Political Press
The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century. In 1968, the Malaysia National News Agency, BERNAMA, began
operating (BERNAMA, 2017). In 1984, the Printing and Publications Act enabled
the Minister of Home Affairs to revoke any publications' licenses deemed
dangerous to the state. There is no judicial review, and the ministersÊ decisions are
final. Malaysia is seen as one of the authoritarian and repressive countries
regarding the press (Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani, 2005).
6.4.3 The Element of Political Press
In Malaysia, two opposing positions define the newspapers. The Barisan Nasional
(BN), the ruling coalition, contrasts directly with its opposition. Barisan is assumed
to promote harmony among ethnic groups while the opposition allegedly creates
ethnic conflict. The press in Malaysia fluctuates between ideas about democracy
as being ideal, and elitism as a fact in this classist society.
In 1998, the Malaysian government allowed Malaysia’s first commercial non-
government controlled online newspaper, MalaysiaKini to begin operations. In the
early 2000s, the debate about trying to censor the Internet in Malaysia continued.
In March 2002, both the public and Parliament were split on the issue; half wanted
to see tighter controls and censorship, while the remaining half wanted the
Printing Press laws to be discontinued and the Internet to be free from government
censorship.
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-identify
As technological advancement accelerates, reactions toward new technologies
also elicited resistance and adoption. During the General Election (GE) 2008, the
new media electoral landscape comprised blogs, party websites and alternative
news portals. However, in 2008, BN literally had limited online presence and the
emergence of the Internet was said to have challenged the status quo. In February
2013, two-and-half months before Malaysia’s 13th general elections (GE13), Prime
Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak was quoted widely in the media saying that
the country will experience its first „social media election‰ (Zahiid, 2013). The
significance of his remarks lies in the exponential growth of social media users in
Malaysia over the preceding five years.
According to the Malaysian Digital Association’s (MDA) February 2012 report,
websites of the mainstream media, such as thestar.com.my, utusan.com.my
and bharian.com.my, collected 2,221,763, 1,171,578 and 769,772 unique browsers
respectively (Gomez, 2013). Alternative news websites such as malaysiakini.com
and the malaysianinsider.com collected 1,858,649 and 1,117,124 unique browsers
respectively in the same period, demonstrating strongly their comparative
strength (Gomez, 2013).
Hence, in the run-up to GE13, both media and online data pointed towards social
media as the platform where the online communications of the general elections
would likely be transmitted. The country's opposition coalition was credited
in using new media to overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by
establishment political interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
Communication is increasingly two-way, with the public expecting greater
engagement and interactivity with their political representatives. The Internet and
social media have led to unprecedented complexity in the political communication
process in Malaysia.
6.5 MEDIA, GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL PARTIES
The mass media is often seen as the bridge between the people and the
government. In the following subtopics, the nature of relationship between the
mass media and the government is discussed. The importance of politics to the
media and vice versa cannot be over emphasised. Thus, the type of relationship
between the mass media and political parties is also discussed.
6.5.1 The Nature of Relationship between the Mass Media and the Government
Media and the government are two of the largest institutions within a country.
They were both designed for a common goal: to serve the people. Since 1991,
the press in many developing countries have become more independent and
pluralistic.
Media pluralism has become one of the most vital components of a democratic
society, which in turn is a prerequisite for sustainable social and economic
development. However, theoretically, media pluralism does not exist in Malaysia
because the mainstream media is not independent. Press is required to support the
policies of the government and serve the state.
All the media and press acts, the Printing Presses Acts, the Internal Security Act,
and the Control and Import Acts give the Ministry of Information and the censors
authority to ban imported and domestic material in Malaysia. There are few
federal laws that restrict officials from providing journalists with information,
unless the information has an effect on national security or the military.
Government officials are directed not to talk with journalists or correspondents, if
they deem the information sensitive. Thus, according to Freedom House’s Annual
Freedom of the Press report, in 2015, Malaysia scored as „Partly Free‰, with
middling results in freedom, civil liberties and political rights.
6.5.2 The Types of Relationship between the Mass
Media and Political Parties
The media is essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible
without media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote and
the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process where
voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties,
policies, candidates and the election process itself in order to make informed
choices.
Inherent to this task is the entitlement of parties and candidates to use the
media as a platform for interaction with the public. Furthermore, the Electoral
Management Body (EMB) has a need to communicate information to the electorate
and to a variety of other groups, including the political parties and candidates.
The numerous ways in which media ensure democratic electoral processes
generally fall into one of the following types:
(a)
Media as Transparency Mechanism/Watchdog
Media as a mechanism for transparency ensures voters are provided
information necessary to fully evaluate the conduct of officials as well as the
process at large. Media presence at voting and counting centres is critical to
prevent electoral fraud, given that full measures protecting freedom of
speech are guaranteed, and that the media are ideally free to act
independently and with impartiality.
Media as Campaign Platform
Candidates and parties use the mass media for campaigning through
sponsored direct access spots, paid political advertising, televised debates,
use of social media and other mechanisms.
(b)
(c)
Media as Open Forum for Debate and Discussion/Public Voice
Media provide a mechanism for regular citizens to be heard and therefore to
influence political agendas and campaign platforms, and sometimes to
garner support and influence fellow voters.
Media as Public Educator
Media as a campaign platform ensures the public is educated in political
agendas of all participating political parties and candidates equally. Media
as open forum for debate and discussion ensures that voters can educate
other voters, politicians and officials.
(d)
ACTIVITY 6.2
1.
There is a statement that „mass media is to act as a bridge between
the people and the government‰. Discuss the statement based on
the political system in your country.
Explain the relationship between the mass media and political
parties and discuss which one/ones is/are best for Malaysia’s
political parties.
2.
•
Mass media consists of three types: electronic media, print media and static
media. As media communication technology advances, the new media (social
media, digital media) has become the newly emerging media platform for
instant mass communication.
The electronic media plays a significant role to convey the process and to
provide the forum during the election days; it has become an important
platform to present political ideologies of different political parties.
Electronic media in the form of television and the Internet are central to politics
today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.
•
•
•
•
•
Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically active.
Political banners have a role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue
pressure groups, and intra-party communication.
The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century.
The country's opposition coalition was credited for using new media to
overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by establishment political
interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
The relationship between mass media and political parties can be divided into
the following: media as transparency mechanism or watchdog, media as a
campaign platform, media as an open forum for debate and discussion or
public voice and media as public educator.
•
•
Barisan Nasional (BN)
Campaign platform
Control and Import Acts
Electoral Management Body (EMB)
Electronic media
General election (GE)
Government
Internal Security Act
Malaysian Digital Association (MDA)
Mass communication
Mass media
Media pluralism
New media
Political parties
Political system
Printed media
Printing and Publications Act
Public educator
Static media
Transparency mechanism
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