Topic 1 - Culture and Society.

Topic 1 - Culture and Society.

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define culture;
2. Elaborate on the field of anthropology;
3. Explain the characteristics of culture; and
4. Explain the concept of man as a social being.

INTRODUCTION

John is an American taking a holiday in Malaysia to visit his friend Ahmad. A
few years ago, they used to study together in Yale. At that time, Ahmad related a
lot of stories about Malaysia to John. This has inspired John to visit his friend's
country and to meet his family.

After taking John on a sightseeing trip around the country, Ahmad finally brings
John to his village in Jemapoh, Negeri Sembilan. Upon arriving at Ahmad's
parent's home, John casually walks into the place without taking off his shoes
(please refer to Figure 1.1).

In your opinion, is John a rude person? Actually, John did not mean to be rude.
He is only behaving as he would normally do in the United States, that is,
walking inside the house with his shoes on. This demonstrates that human
behaviour differs according to culture. Cultural sensitivity helps us to act
appropriately in a strange situation, in line with the English proverb: When in
Rome, do as the Romans do. As an anthropology student, you should be

TOPIC 1 CULTURE AND SOCIETY
familiar with the concept of culture and the components that make up culture.
This is what you will learn in Topic 1.

Figure 1.1: Is John rude?

ACTIVITY 1.1

(a) In your opinion, what should have Ahmad done to prevent
this situation from happening?
(b) Think of other examples of cultural clashes.

1.1 DEFINITION OF CULTURE
What do you understand by the word culture? Most people would think of
culture as consisting of dance, music, literature, and the like. You wouldnÊt be
wrong for thinking so, but the concept of culture in anthropology covers more
than just the elements that have been mentioned.

Let us consider one classic definition that is widely used by anthropologists. E.B.
Tylor (please refer to Figure 1.2) asserts that:

Figure 1.2: E. B. Tylor
Source: www.ency.tcv.pl

Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts,
morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.

Tylor's definition focuses on characteristics acquired by man as a result of
growing up in a society with its own unique tradition and culture. As a social
being, man learns about his social role through the process of eenculturation. It is
important for you to understand that this process is not biological in nature
whereby culture is passed down genetically from generation to generation. In
truth, culture is learnt by interacting with other members of society.
For the purpose of our discussion, we will use the following definition of culture:

Culture is a shared way of life that consists of values, beliefs, and taboos
that are passed down from generation to generation in a society through
the process of enculturation.

1.2 FIELD OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
Briefly, what is the study of anthropology? The word anthropology consists of
two Greek words, anthropos (human) and logos (knowledge). As such,
anthropology means knowledge about humans. It follows that social
anthropology is the study of man within society. We can also say that
anthropology is knowledge about man, society, and culture.

Anthropology enquires on what it means to be human, with regards to his
existence as a social being (not a biological being) living in all kinds of societies
all over the world with variations in climate, ecology, and environment. Man as a
social being (please refer to Figure 1.3) is not able to live alone and has to work
with others to achieve his goals. As the saying goes, No man is an island.

Figure 1.3: Man as a social being Source: rapidbi.wordpress.com

The scope of anthropology is quite wide, because if we consider man as a social
being, therefore we also have to consider in some detail other aspects of his
humanity and social existence. This would involve studying other related
disciplines such as sociology, psychology, political science, philosophy, and
literature. In short, anthropology is holistic in scope, covering a comprehensive
range of knowledge.

The word culture comes from the Latin word colere, a verb which means to
cultivate. In this case, culture is cultivated within the individual (consciously or
subconsciously) so that he becomes a social being. In this sense, ccultural
anthropology is knowledge about man who has been cultivated with culture.

What is the relationship between culture and society? Culture refers to aspects of
life that is learnt by or cultivated within a person, and is cognitive and symbolic
in nature. SSociety, on the other hand, refers to a social organisation that involves
patterns of human interaction which determine how we should behave in the
presence of others. In any given social situation, we have to decide socially
whether or not we should address the other person, avoid him altogether, or to
establish status distinctions. The question is: how do give (or withhold) social
recognition to/from someone we meet on the street?

SELF-CHECK 1.1

(a) What is TylorÊs definition of culture?
(b) Explain the process of enculturation.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Having defined culture, we shall now proceed to a discussion about the
characteristics of culture. Ferraro (2006) lists eight characteristics of culture:

(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrated

1.3.1 Culture is Shared
Culture is a social phenomenon that is shared by members of society. This means
that people who share a culture are collectively aware of the cultural meanings of
objects, ideas, or behaviour within the context of that culture. As social beings,
we will feel safe if we can reasonably predict other peopleÊs actions.

As an example, the Malays here highly value politeness and good form when
visiting their neighbours. Normally, the Malays would greet the hosts upon
arriving at their home and shake their hands (please refer to Figure 1.4). This is
understood by the Malays to signify politeness in social interaction. Surely we
would not interpret the outstretched hand as a sign of aggression!

Figure 1.4: Shaking hands
Source: imranmd.blogspot.com

If we do not share a common culture, many awkward and funny incidents may
occur. Reflect on the incident that was described in the introduction to this topic.
John unwittingly becomes a victim of cultural confusion by walking into
AhmadÊs parentsÊ home with his shoes on. This is what we mean by culture
shock, a state of uncertainty or ambiguity faced by a person who is trying to act
in a foreign culture.

1.3.2 Culture is Learned
We are well aware by now that culture is not
inherited genetically. Culture is learned as we are
interacting with our social environment through the
process of enculturation. We acquire culture from
the society in which we were born. Culture is
important because it helps us deal with the
challenges that we face in our lives. In truth,
whatever problems that we may be facing have
already been experienced and resolved by our
elders. As children, we merely have to learn how to
deal with those problems from our seniors.

Let's say you are planning to settle down with your
loved one. Surely you would have learned how to
express your intentions from your culture. For
example, in Malay culture, a couple would
normally get engaged first before tying the knot
(please refer to Figure 1.5). These customs are
preserved from generation to generation through
the process of enculturation.

1.3.3 Culture is Taken for Granted
What do we mean when we say culture is taken for granted? If we give it some
thought, we will realise that culture is so much a part of our being that we often
take its presence for granted. We fail to realise that culture is always influencing
our thoughts and actions because it has become a part of our daily habits. We
perform these habits automatically without much thinking. For example, surely
you must have brushed your teeth when you woke up first thing this morning.
This has become such an integral part of your routine that you do not have to
think about it or direct yourself: I have to brush my teeth this morning.

Figure 1.5: Malay couple
Source: kedahlanie.blogspot.com/2008_11_24_archive.html

ACTIVITY 1.2

List a number of daily activities that you have picked up from your
culture which you take for granted.

The downside is that because we take culture for granted, we would
subconsciously assume that other cultures are similar to ours. This can lead to
conflict due to cultural miscommunication. This is precisely what happened to
John earlier. Without meaning to, John has violated one of the cultural norms of
Malay society.

1.3.4 Culture Influences Biological Processes
As biological beings, we all have the same biological needs. We all need to eat,
drink, sleep, shelter ourselves, dispose of bodily waste, and so on. However, the
manner in which we fulfil those needs depends on our cultural customs.

As social beings, we refer to our culture to perform biological processes in
accordance to accepted norms within our society. For example, the Malays here
practice Islam and so are particular about whether or not their food is halal
(please refer to Figure 1.6). So, if we are planning to have an open house and are
expecting Malay guests, we should make sure that the food to be served is
suitable for their consumption as per their religious beliefs.

Figure 1.6: Halal stamp
Source: usrahkeluarga.blogspot.com

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Distinguish between biological being and social being.
1.3.5 Culture is Always Changing
In our discussions thus far, culture has been presented to you as if it is
unchanging and static. It is not as simple as that. In reality, culture is always
changing from time to time.

Culture changes in the following ways:

(a) Innovation: This refers to new ideas that may be used to advance a society.
If an innovative idea is widely accepted, it will trigger a cultural shift. For
example, the invention of the automobile as the main form of
transportation has revolutionised modern lifestyle and culture.
(b) Cultural diffusion: This happens when elements from one culture begin to
spread to other cultures. For example, the MTV culture (please refer to
Figure 1.7) which sprung from the American music industry has very much
influenced the behaviour of teenagers on a global scale.
Figure 1.7: MTV
Source: ms.wikipedia.org

Cultural diffusion is more likely to spark cultural change than innovation
because it is far easier to imitate a foreign lifestyle than it is to come up with
something that is totally new.

1.3.6 Culture is Universal.
No matter where you are, you will find that many common things are shared by
all cultures. You just have to look around you in multicultural Malaysia: Malays
practice Islam, while the non-Malays (Chinese, Indians, and others) practice
Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions. Despite outward
differences, we all have our own belief systems that preach moral values and
enjoin right action. Our religions may be different, but what binds us together is
our innate need for spiritual guidance and faith in the supernatural.

When we say culture is universal, we mean that all cultures share certain ideas or
concepts that are similar despite surface differences in expression and practice.
George Murdock, an anthropologist who specialises in cross-cultural analysis,
has documented a list of ccultural universals as shown in Table 1.1:

Table 1.1: Cultural universals according to Murdock

age grading faith healing joking pregnancy usages
athletics family kin groups property rights
bodily adornments feasting kin terminology propitiation of
supernatural beings calendar fire making language puberty customs
community organisation folklore magic religious rituals
cooking food taboos marriage residence rules
cooperative labour funeral rites mealtimes sexual restrictions
cosmology games medicine soul concepts
courtship gestures modesty status differentiation
dancing gift giving mourning tool making
decorative art greetings music trade
division of labour hair styles mythology visiting dream
interpretation hospitality numerals weaning
education housing obstetrics weather control
ethics hygiene personal names
ethnobotany incest taboos population policy
etiquette inheritance rules postnatal care

Source: Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective
(5th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Besides the cultural universals presented in Table 1.1, can you
think of other cultural universals?

1.3.7 Culture is Adaptive or Maladaptive
Cultural adaptability ensures the survival of
society. Ages ago, primitive people needed to
gather resources from nature such as food, water,
firewood, animal skin and the like to survive.
Culture allows people to control and manipulate
nature for their own ends. For example, people
invented tools to hunt animals, cut down trees, Figure 1.8: Primitive society

light fires and so on (please refer to Figure 1.8).

Source: twicb.blogspot.com

When culture is adaptive, it ensures the survival
and dominance of man on the face of this earth.

At the same time, culture can also be maladaptive when it fails to contribute to
man's survival. In the long run, negative aspects of culture may lead to man's
destruction. For instance, smoking is a cultural habit that is widely accepted on a
global scale. Regardless of its popularity, I am sure that many of us would agree
that smoking is a maladaptive culture because it adversely affects our health and
pollutes the air that we breathe.

1.3.8 Culture is Integrated.
Culture comprises many aspects that are highly interdependent such as the
economy, education, family, religion, politics, technology, medicine, the arts, and
so on. These aspects are not independent of each other but are in fact mutually
influential. Any change introduced to any one aspect of culture will trigger
changes to the other aspects. This is what is meant when we say that culture is
integrated. As such, anthropology attempts to observe and understand the
workings of society in a holistic way.

For example, when a nation suffers from economic recession, this will also affect
other aspects of society other than the economy. The family institution may break
down as a result of people getting laid off and taking out their frustrations on their
spouse. The education sector, on the other hand, may profit from this situation as
unemployed people may decide to further their studies. At the same time, the need
to save costs will spur inventors to develop new technologies, for instance, the use
of liquefied natural gas in NGV vehicles as fuel instead of petrol.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

(a) Differentiate between adaptive culture and maladaptive culture.
(b) Culture is integrated. Explain this concept with suitable examples.

There are many possible definitions of culture. For the purpose of this
module, culture is defined as a shared way of life which consists of values,
beliefs, and taboos that is passed down from one generation to the next.

Anthropology studies man as a social being (not as a biological being) living
in a variety of societies all over the world with different climates, ecologies
and environments.

In discussing culture, we should be aware of characteristics that define
culture. Those characteristics include:
(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrative

As social beings, we are inevitably influenced by our culture. In our daily
interactions, we learn and practice many things pertaining to our culture.
Culture is a natural part of being human.

Anthropology Culture Shock
Cultural Anthropology Enculturation
Cultural Diffusion Innovation
Cultural Universals Social Anthropology
Culture Society

Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Topic 2 - Research Methodology in Anthropology.

Topic 2 - Research Methodology in Anthropology.

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between anthropological methods and sociological methods;
2. Explain the concept of ethnography and ethnographic techniques;
3. Interpret data according to the emic and etic perspectives; and
4. Explain the link between theory and research methodology.

INTRODUCTION
John wakes up in the middle of the night, restless and tired. Mosquitoes are
buzzing around him and his body is marked with spots. His body aches from
sleeping on the thin mattress. To add salt to injury, his stomach is grumbling
from the sambal belacan served by his hosts. John leaves his room in search of a
washroom. Oh dear! The washroom is located outside the house in the dark by
the bush. The cries of wild animals in the middle of the night are a cause of
concern for John. He is that close to quitting and going back to sleep,
uncomfortable as it may be.

How did I end up here? moaned John in his heart (please refer to Figure 2.1). His
thoughts begin to wander back to his homeland, the United States of America,
where he is accustomed to all sorts of modern comforts. He misses his air-
conditioned room and warm bed, no blood-sucking mosquitoes, delicious Western
food (steaks and fish and chips) that agrees with his stomach. A few steps away is
his washroom, not too far away from his clean and well-lighted room.


Figure 2.1: How did I end up here?

Great dreams demand great sacrifices, and this is precisely what it takes for John
to achieve his target of being a renowned anthropologist. John is studying a rural
Malay society to complete his PhD thesis in cultural anthropology. How about
you? Are you as determined as John? Are you willing to leave your creature
comforts for the sake of studying a foreign culture? If your answer is yes, maybe
you are ready to embark on anthropological research.

ACTIVITY 2.1

Reflect on the scenario faced by John. Are you willing to face the
trials and challenges that come with anthropological research?
Discuss with your friends.

2.1 METHODOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
John hails from a modern, progressive society to study another society that is
totally different and utterly foreign compared to his. Here we can see that there
are many kinds of culture and society in this world, each with its own distinctive
lifestyle (please refer to Figures 2.2 and 2.3).


Figure 2.2: Modern city Figure 2.3: Village
Source: www.mohdhilmi.com

This difference is also reflected in the different approaches used in
anthropological and sociological research. Both fields share many similarities, yet
at the same time, we must also note the differences. Table 2.1 lists the differences
between anthropological and sociological methodology:

Table 2.1: Methodological differences in anthropology and sociology

Anthropological methodology Sociological methodology
Studies pre-modern society, usually outside Europe Studies modern society in developed
countries Small-scale societies Large-scale societies Descriptive Quantitative
Holistic Specific

Anthropological research is usually focused on non-European societies, whereas
sociological research is concentrated on modern and developed societies.
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead (please refer to Figure
2.4) study exotic peoples like the Trobriand islanders and the Samoans respectively.
Societies outside Europe are small in scale and possess rudimentary tools and
technology compared to modern societies.
In the 40s and 50s, a number of noted anthropologists took the trouble to study
our local customs. They include Raymond William Firth who wrote Malay Fishermen: Their Peasant Economy(1966) and
Michael G. Swift who wrote Malay Peasant Society in Jelebu(1965).

Figure 2.4: Margaret MeadSource: upload.wikimedia.org

Sociologists like William Foote Whyte study social groups in modern society.
Unlike anthropology, the modern societies studied by sociologists are larger in
scale, urban in nature, and possess the latest technology and gadgets.

Anthropological methodology is descriptive in nature, meaning it attempts to
describe culture through ethnographic methods. Research findings are reported
in writing. SSosiological methodology, on the other hand, is more quantitative in
nature. This means that sociological research is highly dependent on statistics,
census figures, questionnaires, and sampling. As such, sociological findings are
often presented in numerical form as statistics, charts, graphs, and the like.

Anthropological methodology is holistic in approach because it studies culture
comprehensively. It attempts to explain the interrelatedness of social institutions
such as the economy, family, the arts, and so on. Conversely, sociological
methodology tends to be more specific in scope, studying particular aspects of
modern society. For example, William Foote WhyteÊs classic case study Street
Corner Society describes criminal activities done by Italian immigrants in Boston.

SELF-CHECK 2.1

Differentiate between anthropological methodology and
sociological methodology.

2.2 ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic research helps us to develop knowledge about cultural diversity
and serves as a platform to formulate theories about social behaviour.
Ethnography involves fieldwork in a foreign culture. It attempts to identify,
compare, and explain cultural differences and similarities. Many ethnographic
techniques are used to study culture:

Participant observation
Genealogical method
Key informant
Life history
Longitudinal studies

2.2.1 Participant Observation
Anthropologists must be interested to discover new and foreign cultures. He
must be alert to daily routines, extraordinary happenings, seasonal events, and
social behaviour while in the field. Everything that is observed must be recorded
in detail. This is what is referred to as pparticipant observation.

As soon as the anthropologist arrives at the field, he will experience many things that is
strange and foreign according to his cultural perception (please refer to Figure 2.5). He
should immediately record these initial observations, because as time goes on, he will
be rendered immune to these elements which originally stood out for him. Usually, an
anthropologist will reside in the field for at least a year to observe and study a culture
through its seasonal cycle.

Figure 2.5: A foreign culture
Source: www.montereybay.com

Anthropologists must be disciplined enough to regularly take notes in a diary
about whatever aspects of culture that are being observed. Nothing is trivial in
anthropology! Smells, sounds, eating habits and the like are raw material for
anthropological writing. The people being studied are so much a part of their
culture that they are no longer consciously aware of their cultural habits. For the
anthropologist, however, these things are still new to him and it becomes his
responsibility to accurately describe what he observes.

Bronislaw Malinowski (please refer to Figure 2.6), an anthropologist famed for his work
Argonauts of the Western Pacific(1922), asserts that the task of the ethnographer is to grasp
the nativeÊs point of view, his relation to life, to realise hisvision of his world. This means that
the ethnographer must attempt to faithfully represent the cultural viewpoint of the society
under study, and not impose his own prejudiced perspective on his subjects. By
immersing himself in a foreign culture, he will be able to discover the truth about that culture
from the local perspective.

Figure 2.6: Bronislaw Malinowski
Source: www.csuchico.edu

Unlike the pure sciences, anthropology cannot be expected to place foreign
cultures in a laboratory for experimentation. The society under study must be
observed in its natural environment in the field. The ethnographer must actually
interact with his subjects and expose himself directly to the culture that he is
studying. Unlike the laboratory researcher in his white lab coat, he cannot afford
to distance himself from his test subjects and watch from afar.

This is why participant observation is such a popular and classic method in
anthropological fieldwork. This method requires the ethnographer to be present
in the field for an extended period of time to develop rrapport with the locals.
This is to avoid the local community from feeling suspicious and anxious around
the ethnographer.

Due to his increased involvement with the local community, it is not impossible for the
ethnographer to adopt the habits of his research subjects. His mannerisms, speech,
diet, even his body smell will eventually reflect the culture that he is studying. When
the ethnographer becomes deeply involved with the local culture, he may become almost
indistinguishable from the locals. Becoming native is a term used by Western
ethnographers to describe the profound change that happens to certain researchers
who have been in the field for too long. For example, Raymond W. Firth, who conducted
field research in Kelantan and Terengganu from 1939 to 1940, is seen here wearing kain
pelikat, a form of dress usually worn by rural

Figure 2.7: Becoming native Malays (please refer to Figure 2.7).

Source: Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI)

To establish rapport, one has to gradually introduce oneself into the local
community and participate in its rituals and customs. This is in line with the
English proverb: When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Therefore, it follows
that when you are in Malaysia, do as the Malaysians do! Remember John from
Topic 1? He should have been more sensitive and observant of Malay culture;
this show of cultural respect will help him to build rapport with Ahmad's family.

Besides, immersion in the local culture helps the ethnographer to feel for himself
what the locals go through as part of their daily experience. So if the society
under study is an agricultural community, then the ethnographer should
volunteer to plow the fields along with the other farmers. This is so that he will
experience first hand the hardships endured by farmers. If he doesnÊt care to live
like a farmer, how will the ethnographer ever write sincerely about the realities
of agricultural life? Observation is not equal to action.

Remember Raymond Firth (the anthropologist wearing kain pelikat)? He spent a
lot of time with his wife mingling with the natives:

both of us spent much time in observing and taking part in the
general activities of the people - in their houses, in the rice fields, in the
market; at weddings, funerals and circumcision feasts; at shadow plays
and mediumistic performances for the cure of the sick; and above all,
up and down the beach, which was a highway, a gathering-place and
the scene of much work (Firth 1966: 358).
Thomas H. Eriksen (please refer to Figure 2.8), a Norwegian anthropologist, once
conducted fieldwork in the West Indies. While he was there, he worked hard cutting
and carrying sugar canes under the hot, blistering sun. He admits that it was brutal
work given the conditions, but it was well worth the effort. He needed to know what it
was like for the lower class workers toiling in the sugar cane plantations. The only way to
do so was to become one himself.

Figure 2.8: Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Source: ww.aschehougagency.no

Anthropological research takes up a lot of time and effort. Malinowski was in the
field for more than two years. So was Raymond Firth. The time required is
justified because anthropologists need to study a society holistically to cover all
possible cultural ground. Anthropologists are expected to observe social
processes that continue over an extended period of time. Most religious rituals
and ceremonies must be observed directly and in the context of its annual cycle
for its cultural significance to be understood. In other words, the anthropologist
cannot afford to have a snapshot view of a society and pretend that it tells the
whole story of that culture.

2.2.2 Genealogical Method
The ggenealogical method involves tracing the genealogical descent of individuals
in a society and understanding the kinship links between families. Anthropologists
have developed a complex system of symbols and notation to be used in studying
kinship, descent, and marriage. Genealogy is an important component of social

organisation in pre-industrial societies where its members live and interact with
kin and relatives on a daily basis. Genealogical data helps anthropologists to
understand social relations between members of society and is useful in
reconstructing the social history of that society .
In pre-industrial societies, kinship is basic to social life. Everybody is related to
somebody. These kinship ties determine oneÊs social, economic and political
rights and so should not be underestimated.

Through marriage, kinship ties can be expanded. Kinship ties form the foundation
of social organisation becaus e it can establish economic and political cooperation
between different t ribes that w ere previously unrelated to each other socially. This
concept w ill be discussed in greater detail in Topic 3: Kinship and Marriage.

SELF-CHECK 2.2

It is useful to study the genealogy of families in pre-industrial
societies. Why?

2.2.3 Key Informant
All societies have some experienced or talented members who can provide complete and useful
information about certain aspects of their culture. These people are called key informants (please refer to
Figure 2.9). They are especially useful because they can tell the anthropologist exactly what he needs to know
about the society that he is studying. Without key informants, it is difficult for the ethnographer to
understand the significance of certain behaviours or cultural symbols. Moreover, key informants may
know others who are more knowledgeable and well-versed about the subject in question. It is not
surprising for the ethnographer and the kkey informant to become close friends way after the research is over.

Figure 2.9: Key informant
Source: anthropology.si.edu

2.2.4 Life History
In pre-industrial societies, there are all sorts of individuals with a variety of
interests. Some locals are more interested in helping the ethnographer than
others. They are also more outstanding and interesting compared to the rest. This
is why their life histories are more interesting and can provide a more colourful
perspective on the cultural life of our society. It is no surprise that the researcher
might want to document the life history of certain individuals in that community.
This enables us to know a culture from a more personal and intimate angle. Life
histories reveal how certain individuals think, react, and contribute to the
changes that influence their lives.

2.2.5 Longitudinal Studies
Some time ago, fieldwork was limited by geographical factors. It may take a long
time to reach a site, and visits are rarely repeated. But nowadays, ethnographic
reports often employ data from periodical visits. Longitudinal studies are long-
term research conducted on a society over an extended period of time over
repeated visits. This technique allows the ethnographer to trace changes and
make comparisons in terms of time and space.

ACTIVITY 2.2

(a) Using key informants and life histories may give you a more
personal and colourful picture of the culture that you are
studying. To what extent can you rely on key informants and
life histories? Discuss this with your friends.

(b) List down other anthropological research techniques that are
not covered in this topic.

2.3 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Ethnographic research attempts to collect data about beliefs, perceptions, and
viewpoints of a society. In interpreting data, anthropologists must take into
consideration the following:

(i) Emic perspective
(ii) Etic perspective
(iii) Ethnocentric bias

2.3.1 Emic Perspective
The eemic perspective studies local thinking patterns. Questions often asked include:

How do they perceive and categorise their world?
What are the social rules that determine their behaviour?
What are some of the things that they value in their culture?
How do they imagine and represent their social reality?

Through the emic perspective, ethnographers attempt to explain the local
viewpoint by referring to certain members of society for further elaboration.
Sources for in-depth information include key informants and life histories. For
example, some cultures believe that illness is caused by evil spirits, ancestors, or
witch doctors (please refer to Figure 2.10). This explanation reflects the emic
perspective which favours the local viewpoint and the cultural meanings
adopted by that culture.

Figure 2.10: Witch doctor
Source: www.viperalley.com


Figure 2.11: Medical doctor
Source: repairstemcell.wordpress.com


2.3.2 Etic Perspective
The eetic perspective focuses the researcherÊs viewpoint over the local viewpoint.
This approach assumes that the members of a social group are not able to
objectively describe their culture because they are too involved in that culture.
For example, some societies believe that illness is caused by evil spirits and can
be cured by witch doctors. Scientifically (the etic perspective), the ethnographer
knows that diseases are caused by germs and can be cured by medical doctors
(please refer to Figure 2.11).

Here, the ethnographer decides for himself what is considered worthy of study.
He should try to be as objective as possible and be fair to the culture that he is
observing. However, it should be noted that the ethnographer is also human and
as such is also affected by bias and prejudices. Therefore, perfect objectivity is not
to be expected. It is hoped that intensive training in anthropology would
somewhat reduce bias in fieldwork.


SELF-CHECK 2.3

Differentiate between the etic perspective and the emic
perspective.

2.3.3 Ethnocentric Bias
Anthropology teaches that no single culture is superior to other cultures. Claims
that Western culture is better than non-Western cultures are not true from the
anthropological point of view. Such claims demonstrate ethnocentric bias,
meaning that oneÊs assessment of other cultures is influenced by oneÊs own
cultural standards.

Each culture must be viewed according to the unique lens of that own society,
and not according to the distorted lens of other societies. Cultural relativism
appreciates the fact that other cultures have their own strengths and operate
according to its own internal logic.

2.4 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION IN RESEARCH
As more data is collected about foreign cultures, we gain more knowledge which
allows us to explain cultural differences and similarities. A theory is a statement
that describes relationships between phenomena that are studied.
Anthropological theories help us to interpret data, explain cultural phenomena,
and make predictions about social behaviour.

Even if a theory cannot be proven, it may still be useful for research purposes
because it can be used to generate hypotheses. A hypothesis is an unproven
statement that may be used as a springboard for further research. Hypotheses
must be tested empirically, and if proven, it will strengthen a theory. If not, the
theory may be revised or rejected altogether.

There are many anthropological theories, but for the purpose of this topic, we
will only focus on three well-known theories:

(i) Evolutionary theory
(ii) Diffusion theory
(iii) Functionalism

2.4.1 Evolutionary Theory
Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan (please refer to Figure 2.12) contributed tremendously to the
development of evolutionary theory. This theory owes a lot to Charles DarwinÊs concept of biological
evolution. Evolutionary theory basically states that all societies go through the same developmental stages
in the same sequence. Cultural evolution is assumed to progress in a linear fashion (one-directional) and
will always bring development and cultural improvement. Lewis Henry Morgan used concepts
such as savagery, barbarism, and civilisation to categorise the level of technological development for
a particular society. This theory is accused of being ethnocentric because it assumes that Western
civilisation is the only standard by which human development and achievement is measured.

2.4.2 Diffusion Theory
Figure 2.12: Lewis Henry Morgan
Source: www.union.edu


Diffusion theory is pioneered by anthropologists such as Grafton Elliot Smith (please refer to Figure 2.13), W. J.
Perry, Fritz Graebner, and Wilhelm Schmidt. This theory assumes that societies in this world tend to borrow ideas
and technology from other societies through the process of cultural diffusion. This theory is now widely
discredited because it is too dependent on the concept of cultural diffusion to explain the process of cultural
change. Smith and Perry, for instance, suggested that Elliot Smith everything that was ever invented in this world could be
traced back to ancient Egyptian civilisation. Is this a reasonable assumption to make? Think about it.

Figure 2.13: Grafton
Source: www.cdb.ucl.ac.uk

2.4.3 Functionalism
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (please refer to Figure 2.14)
were the founding fathers of functionalism. This theory attempts to prove that cultural elements in a
society positively contribute to individual and social well-being. Functionalists imagine society to be just
like a biological organism which consists of interrelated parts that depend on each other. Because
of the integrated nature of society, any changes that occur to one part will necessarily trigger changes in
other parts of society. Functionalism has a strong Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
foundation in fieldwork thanks to solid research done by ethnographers like Bronislaw Malinowski.

Figure 2.14: Alfred
Source: picasaweb.google.com

ACTIVITY 2.3

Based on the theories that we have discussed, try to formulate some
hypotheses about cultural phenomena. In your opinion, does your
hypothesis prove or disprove existing theories?


. There is a difference between anthropological methodology and sociological
methodology. Anthropological research normally revolves around small-
scale non-European societies, and is descriptive and holistic in nature.
Sociological research, on the other hand, revolves around large-scale modern
societies, and is quantitative and specific in nature.

. Ethnography involves fieldwork in a certain society. Ethnographic techniques
include participant observation, genealogy, key informant, life history, and
longitudinal studies.

. Data in anthropological research can be interpreted according to the emic
perspective (focused on local viewpoint) or the etic perspective (focused on
the researcherÊs viewpoint). Anthropologists should try their best to prevent
ethnocentric bias from influencing their research.

. Theory is an important springboard for furthering research. Some well-known anthropological theories include evolu tionary theory, diffusion
theory, and functionalism.

Anthropological Method Genealogical Method Becoming Native Hypothesis
Cultural Relativism Key Informant Diffusion Theory Life History
Emic Perspective Longitudinal Studies Ethnocentric Bias Participant Observation
Ethnography Rapport Etic Perspective Sociological Method Evolutionary Theory Theory
Functionalism


Eriksen, T. H. (1995). Small places, large issues: An introduction to social and cultural anthropology. London: Pluto Press.

Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Firth, R. W. (1990) [1966]. Nelayan Melayu: Ekonomi tani mereka. Translators
Yaacob Harun dan Noor Hasnah Moin. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.

Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Topic 5 - Systems of Production

Topic 5 - Systems of Production

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between man, ecology and technology;
2. Describe the division of labour in society;
3. Compare systems of production in the world; and
4. Discuss environmental issues related to systems of production.

INTRODUCTION
John comes out of the supermarket. He is drinking a can of Coke while carrying a
plastic bag full of household items and foodstuff such as toothpaste, toothbrush,
soap, hair gel, shampoo, instant noodles, and others. The supermarket is where
John and so many other people go to get what they need. John cannot imagine
how society would continue to function without supermarkets. What if all the
supermarkets in the world suddenly decided to close shop all of a sudden?
Surely there will be general panic as many people would be wondering how they
would go about getting their goods.

As John is walking home, he passes by a paddy field, wide and green. He
observes a farmer ploughing the field with his cow (please refer to Figure 5.1). It
occurred to John: perhaps in the past, before the advent of modernity and
supermarkets, man could subsist by planting paddy and processing their own
food. Man depended more on nature for his sustenance. Modern man seems to
be alienated from nature and may even be responsible for the declining quality of
the environment. How did all this come about? These issues that are troubling
John (and perhaps yourself) will be discussed in greater detail in this topic.


Figure 5.1: Can man survive by depending solely on agriculture?

ACTIVITY 5.1

Have you gone to the supermarket with your family this week?
List the grocery items that you would normally purchase and
reasons for purchasing them. Next, figure out if there are
alternatives to those grocery items that could easily be gathered
from nature. Discuss with your friends.

5.1 MAN, ECOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
To survive, man must learn to deal with many cultural challenges. So far, this
module has tried to explain how man manages his social life through social
institutions like the family and religion. These institutions help man achieve his
objectives such as strengthening social solidarity or to propagate the species. But
of all these social needs, the most important on the scale of priorities would be to
acquire food from nature. Society will perish if it cannot provide a mechanism by
which to provide food systematically to its members.

There is a very intimate connection between man, ecology, and technology.
Ecology refers to the complex relations between an organism and its
surroundings. In the anthropological context, that organism is man who interacts
with society (his social surroundings) to acquire food and other necessities.
Technology refers to the means of accomplishing tasks using technical processes,
knowledge, and tools.


Figure 5.2: Primitive weapon Figure 5.3: Modern weapon
Source: www.celebrateexpress.com Source: upload.wikimedia.org

It is apparent that man depends on technology to interact with his social
surroundings for the purpose of accomplishing his daily tasks. What is less
apparent here is that technology is in fact reflective of the times. For example,
primitive man also had technology in the form of weapons used for hunting
game. These animals were brought back to their caves to be processed into food.
Similarly, modern man also uses technology to acquire food, only not in the form
of clubs and spears (please refer to Figure 5.2). One of the primary weapons of
modern man is the credit card (please refer to Figure 5.3) and it is carried by the
modern hunter into the modern jungle to hunt food. What is this modern jungle
that we speak of? Surely the supermarkets and hypermarkets!

As a comparison, for modern people like us, we purchase our foodstuff and
grocery from the supermarket, but for tribal societies and hunters and gatherers,
the jungle is the supermarket for them. The jungle is the ecological surrounding
in which they find and gather almost all their necessary items including food,
construction material, clothes, medicine, and so on.

SELF-CHECK 5.1

(a) Define the following:
Ecology
Technology

(b) Explain the relationship between man, ecology, and technology.

5.2 DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY

You have brought back meat to your home, whether through primitive or
modern means. Who will now process that meat to be served to your family? In
any society, whether primitive or modern, you will find that there is division of

labour. All societies must assign different roles to ensure that tasks are performed
responsibly. There are several levels of division of labour:

Specialisation by gender
Specialisation by age
Specialisation by role

5.2.1 Specialisation by Gender
In anthropology, there is a marked difference between tasks performed by men
and women. Usually, men will do work outside the home whereas women will
do work inside the home (please refer to Table 5.1). however, this is merely a
generalisation. There are always exceptions to the rule: there are men who prefer
to be househusbands (please refer to Figure 5.4) and there are also women who
prefer to build their careers (please refer to Figure 5.5) in areas monopolised by
men. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that on the whole specialisation by gender
is an observable phenomenon in many societies throughout the world.

Table 5.1: Division of labour by gender

Men's roles WomenÊs roles
Hunting Gathering
Building houses Childcare
Clearing land for farming Farming
Breeding livestock Cooking food
Leadership Housekeeping


Figure 5.4: Househusband Figure 5.5: Career woman
Source: picasaweb.google.com Source: www.montgomerycountymd.gov


60 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

There are three theories which attempt to explain specialisation by gender in
division of labour:

(i)
Men are physically stronger and have the physique to perform heavy tasks
such as hunting, fighting, and clearing land for farming.
(ii)
Women perform work inside the house because it is compatible with
childcare. MenÊs tasks are heavy and dangerous, and if performed by
women, it is feared that it will endanger children under her care.
(iii)
In terms of reproduction, men are more expendable than women. If women
are put in danger and as a result are killed in action, who will then bear
children? If men are killed while hunting or fighting, this will not disrupt
the reproductive function of society for as long as women have access to
men. So if you are a man, make sure that you are not killed because your
woman might end up with another man!
SELF-CHECK 5.2

(a)
Distinguish between menÊs roles and womenÊs roles.
(b)
Describe three theories that explain specialisation by gender
in division by labour.
5.2.2 Specialisation by Age
Labour is also divided according to age group. Children are usually exempted
from performing adult tasks because they lack physical strength and the
necessary knowledge. Instead, they are usually sent to school to seek knowledge
up to university level. With qualifications and certificates, parents will feel at
ease knowing that their children are better equipped to secure jobs. Because of
this, children are not expected to work and help their parents; instead, they are
reminded to study hard to secure a successful future.

Not all children are so lucky. In developing countries, child exploitation happens
in sweatshops. A ssweatshop (please refer to Figure 5.6) involves working
environments that can be considered difficult and dangerous where the workers
are exploited and do not have the opportunity to improve their condition. This
usually involves dangerous substances, extreme temperatures, and abusive
employers. Children in countries like Bangladesh and Nepal are forced to work for
hours and are paid a pittance in violation of minimum wage and overtime laws.


TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
61


Figure 5.6: Sweatshop children Figure 5.7: Senior citisen
Source: www.stir.org.au Source: www.lilseus.net

We will not stay young forever. One fine day, we will all experience old age.
Because old men are not as strong as they used to be, they are not expected to
perform heavy tasks anymore. For example, in primitive societies, old men no
longer hunt buy they still contribute by making weapons and tools. Usually, they
also shoulder religious roles and serve as the historical custodians of their
community based on their experience and wisdom. On the other hand, senior
citisens in the West usually lose their position and status when they retire
(please refer to Figure 5.7).

5.2.3 Specialisation by Role
When societyÊs food production system improves, more people are freed from
the task of gathering and processing food. Technological advancements allow
more people to play more specialised roles in society. Unlike primitive people,
we have to shoulder certain roles and so have no time to go out hunting food.
When we arrive home, we take for granted that food is on the table.

Back then, the situation was not like it is today. Do you still remember Emile
Durkheim? He made a study on the basis of social solidarity in primitive and
modern societies. According to Durkheim, primitive societies practice mechanical
solidarity where members of society play the same role, feel that they are socially
equal, and practice traditional and family values. Solidarity comes from the feeling
that people go through more or less the same experiences as others.

Figure 5.8: Teacher
Source: www.savein30.com


Figure 5.9: Mechanic
Source: cccgreeley.org



62 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

The emergence of modern societies introduces a shift from mechanical solidarity to
organic solidarity which is founded on role specialisation and interdependency.
This is because as society becomes more complex, it is not possible for any one of
its members to possess all the skills that are required to live his life. LetÊs say you
are a teacher in school (please refer to Figure 5.8). You know how to teach and
educate but perhaps you are not too skilled when it comes to fixing cars. So you
have to send your car to the workshop to be looked at by the mechanic (please
refer to Figure 5.9). Surely the mechanic knows more than you about cars, but
perhaps he has children who need to learn how to read, write, and do sums. The
mechanic will send his children to school to be taught by teachers like you.
Organic solidarity ensures that members of society fulfil each otherÊs needs based
on the skills that they have to offer. In life, no man is an island.

ACTIVITY 5.2

In your opinion, is the division of labour in society fair and
equitable? What will happen if there is no division of labour in
society? Discuss.

5.3 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
We have been made aware so far that division of labour exists in society. Now it
is time to study different systems of production based on how food is acquired
and processed. We can categorise systems of production into five types:

(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation
5.3.1 Hunting and Gathering
Hunting and ggathering involves activities such as hunting, foraging, and fishing.
Man has been gathering food from the earliest dawn of history, and today we
still have societies which still do like the Ju/Êhoansi and Inuit (please refer to
Figure 5.10). In general, hunting and gathering societies have always been
depicted as underdeveloped and less complex as compared to modern societies.
The following characteristics typify hunting and gathering societies:


TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
63


Figure 5.10: The Inuit
Source: www.greenlandholiday.com


(a)
S
SSmall population: This happens because food gathering will never
guarantee an abundance of food. Food gatherers usually do not stock their
food for long periods of time. Even if they are able to do so, this will
eventually deplete their food source. What this proves is that without
plenty of food, human population will not expand.
(b)
N
NNomadic lifestyle: Food gatherers have to move around a lot in order to
trail their game. Their lives revolve around seasonal hunting cycles, which
explains why they do not stay put in any single area for extended periods
of time.
(c)
T
TThe family as the basic social unit: Hunting and gathering societies consist
of alliances between families that cooperate in hunting and gathering
activities. The family unit is egalitarian in nature and does not value social
differentiation as much as modern families.
(d)
F
FFound in isolated areas: Hunters and gatherers are used to hunting and
gathering in isolated areas such as deserts and tundras. With minimal
equipment and weapons, they are able to secure enough food despite the
harsh and unforgiving environment.
5.3.2 Horticulture
The N

Neolithic revolution marks the shift from hunting and gathering to food
production. This revolution has the following cultural impact on the
development of human civilisation:

(a)
P
PPopulation explosion: When society succeeds in producing food in great
quantities, more people can be sustained at any one time.

64 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

(b)
S
SSettled place of residence: Societies that produce its own food are more tied
to the land compared to hunting and gathering societies. They have to settle
in an area for a long time before they can reap the yield from the land.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: When food production systems improve, only a small
number of people are required to prepare food for the rest of society. Those
not involved in food production are free to play other roles in society and
this brings about what Emile Durkheim terms as organic solidarity.
Horticulture is one of the earliest food production systems in the world.
Horticulture is the cultivation of plants using simple tools (for example, the hoe)
and small plots of land. Only manpower is used in horticulture; animals,
machines, and irrigation systems are not required.

Shifting cultivation is a technique which is often used in horticulture where forests
are cleared and rased to the ground (please refer to Figure 5.11). The ashes become
fertiliser and plants are cultivated. This technique affects the fertility of the land
after a year or two, and if this happens, the farmers will move to another site. The
abandoned site will soon be overgrown with bushes. Shifting cultivation is
practiced in countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Sambia, and others.


Figure 5.11: Shifting cultivation
Source: www.mapscroll.fi


5.3.3 Pastoralism
Pastoralism refers to the rearing of animals (cattle, goats, sheep) as sources of
food (milk, meat). Herders have to ensure that their livestock have enough
grassland to grase on. As such, they lead a nomadic life because they are always
looking for new pastures for their livestock to grase on according to seasonal
changes. Pastoral societies do not have to rely entirely on their livestock; they
also get food by planting crops and trading with other groups. But basically, the
main source of food for pastoralists is their livestock.


TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
65

Because of this, animals like the cow have special significance and social meaning
in pastoral societies. Cattle are not just sources of food; they also serve as bride
wealth or sacrificial animals for religious ceremonies. In other words, the social
function of livestock is also closely linked with other social institutions such as
marriage, religion, and status. The cow is also a status symbol in some traditional
societies, very much like how a Lamborghini or Porsche represents prestige and
status in modern societies.

For example, the Maasai in Africa believe that God has entrusted them with the
responsibility of taking care of all the cattle that exists on the face of the earth
(please refer to Figure 5.12). Because of this myth, the Maasai are notorious for
stealing cattle from their neighbours! But the Maasai do not consider what they
are doing wrong, because God has given all the cattle in the world to them;
therefore, other people who own cattle, according to Maasai myth, have acquired
them illegally. The Maasai are merely „repossessing‰ what is rightfully theirs
anyway as decreed by God. Perhaps during the upcoming Festival of Sacrifice
(Eid al-Adha), before you slaughter the cattle, you should seek permission from
its „rightful owners‰ first, the Maasai!


Figure 5.12: The Maasai
Source: www.ilri.org


5.3.4 Agriculture
Agriculture differs from horticulture because it is highly dependent on animal
strength and technology (please refer to Figure 5.13). Unlike horticulture,
agriculture involves the use of technological implements such as the plough,
fertiliser, irrigation systems, and modern machines. Technological sophistication
ensures that agriculturalists reap more yield and crops than the horticulturalists.
However, this high level of productivity requires a major investment in terms of
workforce and capital. Agriculture is one of the factors that contribute to the
expansion of civilisation because it brings about the following changes:


66 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION


Figure 5.13: Agriculture utilises animal power and technology
Source: www.cyberartsweb.org


(a)
E
EEstablishment of towns: Agriculture requires people to settle in a certain
area for an extended period of time. This leads to the establishment of
towns which serve as centres of civilisation.
(b)
E
EEfficient system of food production: With the advent of technology, more
food can be produced to sustain an ever increasing population. A large
population is the prerequisite for the establishment of a strong civilisation.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: As we have discussed before, the existence of a social
class which specialises in producing food frees other people to take on
other roles. Social stratification is one of the characteristics of human
civilisation.
The social class that is responsible for producing food for society is called the
peasantry. They constitute the majority in any society and are tied to the state
through political, religious, and economic institutions. They offer surplus yield
and crops to the state, while the state provides them with products that they
need. Here, we have to take note that although they are the main providers of
food for society, yet their social status is low, they have no political power, and
they own very little wealth compared to the upper classes. Is this situation
socially fair? Reflect on this.


TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
67

5.3.5 Industrialisation
As we have discussed previously, the Neolithic revolution has dramatically
changed our way of life. The IIndustrial Revolution ushered in a new era in the
history of food production. Industrialisation is heavily dependent on modern
technology (such as windmills, waterwheels, tractors, chemical fertilisers) as
compared to human or animal strength. The widespread use of technology has
multiplied yield and crops many times over. Instead of subsistence farming,
modern farmers can now sell surplus yield and crops for profit. However,
modern technology consumes high amounts of capital.

The best example to describe the influence of modern technology in farming is
the use of g
gglobal positioning system (GPS). This technology allows the modern
farmer to determine position, time, and direction accurately in real time. This
means that he is able to precisely monitor measurements concerning water, land,
and crops. This modern concept of farming is called pprecision farming because it
enables the farmer to do the right thing, at the right time, at the right place
(please refer to Figure 5.14).


Figure 5.14: Precision agriculture
Source: www.ranchview.ca


SELF-CHECK 5.3
State the characteristics of the following systems of production:
Hunting and gathering
Horticulture
Pastoralism
Agriculture
Industrialisation

68 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The systems of food production that we have discussed so far have contributed
much to societyÊs survival. However, we must bear in mind that these systems
may have negative consequences for the environment. In securing oneÊs
livelihood on the face of this earth, are we acting responsibly in managing our
ecology, or are we blatantly contributing to the destruction of nature?

Commercial farming involves clearing a large area of forest land which will
destroy the local ecology. Animal husbandry (for example, poultry farm and pig
farm) causes pollution in the form of animal excrement. Uncontrolled use of
pesticides has contaminated many water sources, endangering the lives and
health of human consumers.

Shifting cultivation has been criticised because it threatens biodiversity (variety of
flora and fauna) in the jungle. Under normal conditions, this technique destroys
forest areas and acres of pasture. But ever since the El Nino phenomenon struck
the world, fires started for the purpose of shifting cultivation have begun to spread
beyond control. Major cities in Southeast Asia have experienced major hazy
conditions due to forest fires in Sarawak and Kalimantan (please refer to Figure
5.15). The resulting drought caused by El Nino causes many negative effects on the
ecology: many species of trees are becoming extinct, wild animals are displaced
from their habitat, and the increasing rate of soil erosion.


Figure 5.15: Haze in Kuala Lumpur
Source: picasaweb.google.com



TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
69

Actually, there are many more environmental issues that arise due to manÊs
irresponsibility:

.
Water pollution due to pesticides.
.
Fishes in the sea are decreasing due to large scale commercial fishing.
.
Genetically modified crops may endanger human health.
ACTIVITY 5.3

Surf the net and find information about environmental issues that
are caused by uncontrolled use of technology. Discuss in class and
try to think of ways to reduce the negative impact technology has
on the environment.


.
Man uses technology (technical processes, knowledge, and tools) in the
context of social ecology to acquire and produce food that is needed to
survive.
.
Division of labour ensures that each and every member of society knows and
performs his assigned role. There are several levels of division of labour:
(i) Specialisation by gender
(ii) Specialisation by age
(iii) Specialisation by role
.
Throughout history, humans have organised various systems of production
based on the technology that was available at the time. We can categorise
these systems of production into five types:
(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation

70 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

.
Although these systems of production help us to acquire and produce the
food that we need, but when abused, it brings about negative effects to the
social ecology.
Agriculture Neolithic Revolution
Division of Labour Organic Solidarity
Ecology Pastoralism
Global Positioning System (GPS) Peasantry
Horticulture Precision Farming
Hunting and Gathering Shifting Cultivation
Industrial Revolution Sweatshop
Industrialisation Technology
Mechanical Solidarity


Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Topic 8 - Social Stratification.

Topic 8 - Social Stratification.

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the factors which influence social inequalities;
2. Describe various types of societies according to its degree of social stratification; and
3. Compare theories of stratification (functionalism and conflict theory).

INTRODUCTION
John is conducting a study on the sultanate system in Malaysia. He has gone to
the National Library to get materials related to his topic. He discovered that the
sultan's role is inherited from generation to generation. For example, according
to the newspaper clipping that he is reading, after the demise of Sultan
Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, his son Tengku Idris Shah was crowned as the
ninth sultan of Selangor with the title Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah on 22nd
November, 2001. This leads John to think: Apparently not just anybody can
become a sultan in Malaysia. Even if my friend Ahmad wanted to become the
Sultan of Selangor, this surely would never happen!

John then reflected Barack Obama's recent appointment as America's first Black
president. This is in stark contrast to the sultanate system where such a thing
would not have been possible. Obama was able through sheer determination and
belief to scale the social ladder and finally become the most powerful man in the
United States (please refer to Figure 8.1). Americans believe firmly in the idea of
anybody being able to achieve great success through hard work and effort. This
leads John to think: Apparently just about any American can become the
President. In fact, I could become the next President if I really wanted to!


Rajah 8.1: Sultan versus Barack Obama

Social stratification determines our social position in society. Sometimes we are
tied to a particular social status because of hereditary factors, for example, it may
be our destiny to be born into royalty. But there are also cases where we can
work hard to change our destiny, especially in a society with very high social
mobility. How far does social stratification influence our roles in society? This
topic attempts to explore this question by discussing the bases of social
inequality, describing various societies with different stratification systems, and
explaining social stratification from the functionalist and conflict perspectives.

ACTIVITY 8.1

Observe patterns of social stratification in the following situations
and discuss them with your friends:

The office where you work
Your extended family in your hometown
Your tutorial class


8.1 SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
How do we measure social inequalities? According to Max Weber, there are three
basic criteria that can be used to measure the degree of social inequality:

(i) Wealth
(ii) Power
(iii) Status and prestige

8.1.1 Wealth
Firstly, we can be measured or differentiated based on our wealth. Culturally
speaking, wealth takes on various forms in different societies. For example,
among the peasantry, wealth is measured in terms of cattle and land. However,
urbanites may not quite see it the same way. To them, a big pay cheque and a
fancy car would be indicators of wealth (please refer to Figure 8.2).

Figure 8.2: Wealth
Source: www.irfanahmed.org


8.1.2 Power
Weber defines ppower as the ability to achieve success despite obstacles and
resistance. Maybe you are thinking at this point: what then is the difference
between wealth and power? Isn't wealth equivalent to power? However,
powerful people are not necessarily wealthy. I am sure that you are familiar with
the following adage: knowledge is power. This exemplifies the idea that power is
not always synonymous with wealth. For example, you respect your lecturer not
because he is rich, but because of the wealth of knowledge that he has.

8.1.3 Status and Prestige
Status is a manifestation of social inequality. It refers to the degree of respect that
is given to an individual by society due to sociocultural factors.

Prestige is a subset of social status. Prestige is measured based on the ownership
of wealth, while status is given to those who has distinguished themselves in
non-material fields of endeavour, for example, academics or religion. A
millionaire who sports a Rolex, drives a Ferrari, and lives in a country villa is
highly prestigious. On the other hand, people with considerably less material
possessions may command very high status in society because of their excellent
reputation in their respective areas of work, from teachers, priests, professors,
government servants, to judges.

The meaning of status depends on which part of the world you happen to find
yourself in. In Eastern societies, status is proportional to one's age; the older one
is, the more respect one commands. In Western societies, however, one tends to
lose status when one retires and becomes a senior citizen.

SELF-CHECK 8.1

Explain the following criteria used to measure social inequality:

Wealth
Power
Status and prestige

8.2 TYPES OF SOCIETY
According to Morton Fried, anthropologists have distinguished three types of
society based on how they are stratified. These societies include:

Egalitarian societies
Rank societies
Stratified societies

8.2.1 Egalitarian Societies
In an egalitarian society, all individuals would enjoy more or less the same
degree of wealth, power, and status. Everyone is considered equal. As such,
social inequalities are practically nonexistent in egalitarian societies.
Although some individuals may be respected and acknowledged because
of their talents and abilities (for example, hunting), these individuals
do not have more wealth or power

Figure 8.3: The Hadza compared to their neighbours.
Source: www.survival-international.org

Moreover, no matter how much respect an individual commands, he does not have
any power to influence the lives of others. Those with lower status are not denied
their rights to hold any position that they wish to shoulder. For example, the Hadza
in Tanzania is an example of an egalitarian society (please refer to Figure 8.3).

8.2.2 Rank Societies
In rrank societies, the distribution of wealth and power is equal, but unlike
egalitarian societies, some individuals may command more prestige, status, and
rank. In these societies, not just anybody may hold high status positions. Usually,
these positions will be inherited by those from the aristocracy. One is not
appointed to be a leader based on ability, skill, or wisdom; one becomes a leader
by virtue of one's ancestry.

Although the leaders of rank societies may enjoy higher status and certain privileges, they are not
necessarily richer than others. Their standard of living is not that different from that enjoyed by a commoner.
These leaders will customarily receive gifts from others, but these gifts are not usually kept for long.
Any wealth that they may have will be redistributed for the good of society. The Nootka in British
Columbia is an example of a rank society (please refer to Figure 8.4). Nootka men with high status will be
more ornately dressed compared to those of lower status. Unlike Westerners, the more wealth is given
away, the more status a Nootka gains!


Figure 8.4: The Nootka
Source: www.canadianheritage.org

8.2.3 Stratified Societies
Unlike rank societies where inequalities exist only in terms of status, in sstratified
societies inequalities exist in all forms (wealth, power, and status). These
inequalities can be seen from a political, economic, and social angle.

Individuals and groups in stratified societies can be differentiated in terms of
status, wealth, lifestyle, political power, and standard of living. Inequalities in life
chances are often passed down from one generation to another.

According to anthropologists, there are two types of stratified society based on
their level of social mobility:

(i) Class system
(ii) Caste system
(i) Class System
In the cclass system, ssocial mobility is very much alive, meaning that there is
plenty of movement up and down the social ladder. In other words, an
individual can work hard to change his lot, acquiring wealth, power, and
prestige along the way.

In modern society, an individual born in poverty may still claw his way up
the social ladder by working extremely hard (or through sheer dumb luck!)
and ending up with mountains of millions. On the other hand, it is not
impossible for a millionaire's son to end his life begging for scraps in
suburban streets (please refer to Figure 8.5).


Figure 8.5: Social mobility in a class system
Source: frgdr.com
Source: ocri.wordpress.com



This is what is meant by aachieved status, that is, the status achieved by an
individual based on his own merit and qualifications. What is implied here
is that individuals belonging to a class system believe that they can steer a
course for themselves in life, working hard towards achieving their greatest
dreams.

The class system usually consists of the following classes: ccapitalist class,
upper middle class, mworking class, and u

middle class, wunderclass. Table 8.1
explains these classes in greater detail:

Table 8.1: Social classes in a class system

Capitalist class This class consists of wealthy and influential families
(Rockefeller, Carnegie), chief executive officers (CEOs), and
owners of large and lucrative businesses. Their wealth is highly
dependent on assets like shares, bonds, securities, and
properties. Because they control the means of production in
society, they provide jobs for society and determine the fates of
the other social classes.
Upper middle class This class consists of professionals (doctors, lawyers), business
owners, and those who run the corporations owned by the
capitalists. Their wealth is mainly generated through a sizable
executive income rather than ownership of assets. This class is
highly educated and many of its members have postgraduate
degrees and can afford to send their children to institutions of
higher learning.
Middle class This class consists of those who work hard for a moderate
salary like small-time entrepreneurs, teachers, nurses, and the
like. They enjoy some job security but are still somewhat
affected by inflation and tax. By doubling their efforts, they are
able to improve their lot and achieve a higher status in society.
Working class This class consists of workers who perform routine tasks which
require supervision such as factory workers, clerks, labourers,
and the like. They are usually not highly educated and so are
unable to achieve a higher social status. Their livelihood is very
much influenced by current economic conditions and they may
suffer unemployment in the event of an economic recession.
Underclass This class consists of those who struggle daily with poverty
because they cannot hold regular jobs which promise a stable
salary. Sometimes, they are effectively excluded from
respectable society due to unemployment or social problems
such as drug abuse or juvenile delinquency. They are usually
not very well educated (if at all), and illiteracy is not
uncommon among them.

ACTIVITY 8.2

(a) Based on the table above, can you determine your own social
class? Do you have any dreams or hopes of improving your
standard of living?

(b) Explain the link between social mobility and education. Why is
it that people like you are still interested in furthering their
studies at the highest level?

(ii) Caste System
In the ccaste system, social mobility is virtually non-existent. Membership in
a caste system is fixed upon birth and cannot be negotiated for as long as
the person lives. The caste system segregates its members according to a
rigid social hierarchy. This means that different castes cannot socialise with
each other or intermarry.

Unlike individuals from a class system, members of a caste system will be
indoctrinated to believe that their fates have been fixed since birth.
Therefore, it is futile to strive in order to improve oneÊs lot, because the
caste system does not allow people to jump caste. This is what is meant by
ascribed status, that is, status that is inherited by an individual from one
generation to the next.

The most famous caste system in the world is the Hindu caste system in
traditional India. Indian society may be categorised into different varnas:
brahmin, kksatria, vvaisya, and ssudra. Each varna is believed to represent
different degrees of purity and holiness. The ppariah group is totally
excluded from the caste system because they are considered too dirty.
Each vvarna is associated with a certain role or work as shown in Table 8.2:

Table 8.2: Varnas in a Caste System

Brahmin This varna consists of priests and scholars. They are considered
the purest and holiest group in the caste system and perform
roles that require intelligence and wisdom.
Ksatria This varna consists of administrators and warriors. They are
responsible for the governance and defence of the state. This
group excels in politics and warfare.


TOPIC 8 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION •
107

Vaisya This varna consists of farmers, traders, and artisans. They are
concentrated in the following sectors: business, agriculture, and
animal husbandry. They ensure the smooth running of the
economy in society.
Sudra This varna is made up of labourers. They perform tasks for the
top three varnas, yet they are still considered part of the caste
system.
Pariah This group is not even recognised as part of the caste system.
They are considered unclean and for that reason they are only
allowed to perform trivial and degrading work like cleaning
latrines. For this, they have been dubbed the untouchables.

Does this mean that social mobility is totally non-existent in Indian society?
The answer is yes and no. Socially, one is tied to his caste of origin for
the rest of his life. Spiritually speaking, however, it is possible for an
individual to jump caste. This is because Hinduism teaches its adherents
the concept of rreincarnation which states that upon someone;s death, he
will be reincarnated in a form that befits his deeds (good or bad) in his past
life (kkarma). Therefore, if a Hindu violates an ethical code which is central
to his caste, his reincarnation will be severely jeopardised.

Hindus are expected to display good and moral behaviour in their daily
conduct. If they transgress moral boundaries, there is every possibility that
they will be reincarnated in an inferior caste, or worse, in the form of an
animal! For example, a Hindu who steals from his neighbours may be
reincarnated as a snake as punishment for his sins (please refer to Figure
8.6). Perhaps there is no such thing as social mobility in Hindu society, but
there is such a thing as spiritual mobility!


Figure 8.6: Reincarnation in the Hindu caste system


SELF-CHECK 8.2
Differentiate between:
Rank societies and stratified societies
Class system and caste system

8.3 THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION
You have been informed that social stratification can be seen in terms of the
unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige in society. The question is:
why are social inequalities universally found in all societies all over the world?
We will now discuss two theories that explain social stratification:

(i) Functionalism
(ii) Conflict theory

8.3.1 Functionalism
Functionalism assumes that social stratification contributes to social well-being.
In other words, stratification ensures the smooth running and survival and
society. According to Kingsley Davis (please refer to Figure 8.7) and Wilbert
Moore (please refer to Figure 8.8), in order to ensure the continuance of society,
there has to be a system whereby tasks and roles are assigned to those who are
truly qualified to peform them. For those who are willing and able to shoulder
the burden, they deserve to be handsomely rewarded for their sacrifices.

Figure 8.7: Kingsley Davis
Source: www2.asanet.org

For example, if society provides a system whereby a pilot receives the same pay as a
janitor, surely nobody will take the trouble and risk to train and work as a pilot. By ensuring that
rewards are commensurate with the difficulty of the task, society will be able to attract the best
people to perform the most challenging work. Social inequalities are functional because it serves
as a mechanism that distributes rewards fairly and motivates workers to compete with each
other to be the best.

ACTIVITY 8.3

Do you agree with the ideas propagated by functionalism? Read
more extensively and try to find views that are critical of the
functionalist stand.

8.3.2 Conflict Theory
Contrary to functionalism, conflict theory assumes that society tends more
towards opposition and conflict. According to this theory, stratification
happens because the upper classes are in a position to oppress the lower
classes with their wealth, power, and prestige. Conflict theory is heavily
influenced by Karl Marx (please refer to Figure 8.9) who believed that history
depicts an ongoing class struggle between the bbourgeoisie who owns the
means of production and the pproletariat who offer their services for wages.

The bourgeoisie is influential in shaping the minds of the proletariat because they
control social institutions like schools, factories, government, and the mass media.
They use their power to convince the proletariat that social inequalities are
inevitable. Supposedly, anybody can become rich by working diligently. When the
proletariat accepts the status quo, this means that they are trapped in a state of
false class consciousness woven from the lies and false promises of the capitalists.

Figure 8.8: Wilbert Moore
Source: www2.asanet.org


Figure 8.9: Karl Marx
Source: myphd.eu

For as long as the proletariat swallows the capitalist ideology, social inequalities
will continue to remain. However, Marx predicts that the proletariat will
eventually realise the extent of their oppression at the hands of the bourgeoisie.
Collectively, they will rise and revolt, and finally replace the capitalist system
with communism. It is believed that this will eliminate all social classes, and
ultimately, all traces of social inequality will disappear. Is this really possible?
Karl Marx used to think so, at any rate.


SELF-CHECK 8.3

Explain social stratification according to the following perspectives:

. Functionalism
. Conflict theory
. Max Weber lists three criteria that can be used to measure social inequalities:
(i) Wealth
(ii) Power
(iii) Status and prestige

. Based on those three criteria (wealth, power, and status/prestige), three types
of society can be differentiated:
(i) Egalitarian societies
(ii) Rank societies
(iii) Stratified societies

. Social stratification may be explained using functionalist theory which sees
social inequalities as something that encourages individuals to compete with
each other to be the best, or according to conflict theory which sees the higher
classes oppressing the lower classes to safeguard their interests.

Achieved Status Pariah
Ascribed Status Power
Bourgeoisie Prestige
Brahmin Proletariat
Capitalist Class Rank Society
Caste System Reincarnation
Class System Social Mobility
Conflict Theory Social Stratification
Egalitarian Society Status
False Class Consciousness Stratified Society
Functionalism Sudra
Karma Upper Middle Class
Ksatria Vaisya
Lower Class Varna
Means of Production Wealth
Middle Class Working Class

Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Topic 9 - Ethnic Relations

Topic 9 - Ethnic Relations

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of ethnic relations;
2. Explain the ethnic dimension in socio-cultural relations;
3. Describe the process of ethnic conflict and its effects; and
4. Describe ethnic awareness and identity in society.

INTRODUCTION.
John has stayed in Malaysia for a few months and is feeling comfortable with the
multicultural atmosphere which is a hallmark of the country. John finds that
Malaysians respect one another and have learned to live together in peace and
harmony (please refer to Figure 9.1). His friend Ahmad is not choosy about
friends and mingles freely with friends of other races. During festivities, John
observes the culture of open house practiced by Malaysians irrespective of race
and religion. They will invite their friends to partake of various dishes such as
lemangduring Hari RayaAidilfitri, mandarin oranges during Chinese New Year,
muruku during Deepavali, and many more. John enjoys the variety of dishes
available in Malaysia and appreciates that cultural diversity enriches a
developing society. Even so, it must be remembered that the 13th May 1969
incident looms large as a black mark in the history of racial relations in Malaysia.

Figure 9.1: Racial harmony in Malaysia

Other nations experience severe racial conflict. Among them include the conflict
between the Protestants and the Catholics in Ireland, between the blacks and the
whites in the United States, between the Asians and the whites in England,
between the Muslims and the Christians in Indonesia, between the Serbs and the
Bosnians in Bosnia, between the Tutsi and the Hutu in Rwanda, between the
Muslims and the Hindus in India, between the Moro Muslims and the Christians
in the Philippines, between the Sinhalese and the Tamils in Sri Lanka, and
between the blacks and the whites in South Africa. All these are examples of
conflict based on physical and cultural differences. In short, racial and ethnic
differences in the aforementioned nations have caused conflict, tension, riots,
killing, and all forms of violence.

ACTIVITY 9.1

Before you continue reading, explain what you understand by the
concept of racial and ethnic relations. Compare your views with
the explanation given below.

9.1 UNDERSTANDING ETHNIC DIFFERENCES
The field of ethnic relations studies social behaviour and interaction between
societies that have different physical and cultural backgrounds. When culturally
different societies collide, there is bound to be problems when it comes to social
interaction between them as each one would have their own unique cultural
practices. Ethnic relations studies also observe how our social and cultural
surroundings play a part in influencing that social interaction, harmonious or
otherwise. By understanding the dynamics of ethnic relations, we may be able to
solve some of the problems that we have mentioned above. The question is: how
is our racial consciousness of ourselves as Malay, Chinese, or Indian formed?
How do we behave when we mingle with others from other ethnic groups?

9.2 RACE AND ETHNICITY

What is the difference between race and ethnicity? Generally speaking, the
term rrace refers to the physical and biological characteristics of a group of
people. Ethnicity refers to the cultural characteristics of a group or society. It is
important to remember that race is hereditary and biologically determined,
whereas ethnicity is a form of perception on our part or of others towards us. For
example, if we were born with Malay looks, it would be very difficult for us to
alter our looks so that it will appear English. Of course, this has not stopped
some people from trying (please refer to Figure 9.2). The concepts of „race‰ and
ethnicity are discussed in greater detail in the following sub-topics.

Figure 9.2: Michael Jackson black or white?
Source: entertainmentrundown.com S
SSource: mystuffworld.com

9.2.1 Race
Usually, the concept of rrace refers to a group of people with biological and
physical hereditary features that differ from other groups. According to this
definition, we can categorise people into three types:

(i) Caucasoid: White-skinned, blond hair, tall physique. This type is
predominantly found in European countries and the United States and is said
to originate from the Caucasus in East Europe (please refer to Figure 9.3).

(ii) Negroid: They consist of the native inhabitants of Africa. They have curly
hair, black skin, and flat noses (please refer to Figure 9.4). This term
originated from the word Negro.

(iii) Mongoloid: They are mostly found in East Asia (please refer to Figure 9.5)
and is said to originate from Central Asia. This term is taken from the
place-name Mongolia, one of the countries in Central Asia.
Figure 9.4: Negroid
Source: students.washington.edu

Figure 9.3: Caucosoid Figure 9.5: Mongoloid
Source: Source:
www.vagent.com forum.asuultserver.com

However, many groups of people do not fit neatly into any of these three
categories. This is due to extensive interracial marriages which make
classification of people according to the physical characteristics mentioned above
difficult to do.

In today's context, the term ethnicity may be more appropriate and has wider
currency. Actually, the ethnic consciousness or perspective sometimes has
nothing to do with biological or physical characteristics. For example, if we care
to look around us, there are Malays whose looks resemble the Chinese, Arabs, or
Indians. Conversely, there are also Chinese who look like Malays. Nevertheless,
they all remain ethnically Chinese, Malay, or Indian in identity despite the fact
that they look nothing like their actual races.

9.2.2 Ethnicity.
An ethnic group refers to a group of people with the same cultural tradition or a
shared sense of identity. This group may be a sub-group which exists in a
country with other ethnic groups. For example, there are several large ethnic
groups in our country (Malay, Chinese, and Indian) as well as smaller sub-ethnic
groups (Dusun, Kadazan, Iban, Bidayuh, Jawa, Bugis, and others). Different
ethnic groups have different cultural characteristics in terms of language,
religion, and customs. Therefore, we may conclude that race is a group of
people differentiated according to biological and physical characteristics,
whereas ethnicity is differentiated according to various cultural perceptions
and elements. For example, Malays and Chinese may be grouped into the same
race (Mongoloid) but may be ethnically divergent due to cultural differences
(please refer to Figure 9.6 and Figure 9.7).


Figure 9.6: Malay dance (zapin)
Source: antiyank.wordpress.com


Figure 9.7: Lion dance
Source: adventuresinshaw.com

ACTIVITY 9.2

Malaysia is rich with ethnic diversity. List as many ethnic groups as
you can think of. Then, try to group them according to race. Are
there ethnic groups which belong to the same racial category?

9.3 ETHNICITY IN SOCIO-CULTURAL RELATIONS
If a group of people remain in their own geographical areas and do not meet
other people, then race or ethnic relations issues will not arise. Ethnic relations
problems occur the moment people from different cultural backgrounds meet
and mingle with each other. Cultural clashes cannot be avoided because people
are always on the move to seek new lands to explore, conquer, or colonize. Some
of these cultural encounters have resulted in wars and conquests. For example,
the Mongols advanced over Europe, Western Asia, and China and in the process
war ensued between them and the locals.

The movement of peoples from one area to another is part of cultural dynamics.
In the modern age, the movement of peoples from one nation to another is very
much influenced by economic factors, that is, to secure a better living in a new
place. There are also political cases involving war fugitives and those who seek
political asylum. These factors cause cultural clashes to ensue due to cultural
differences.

In race and ethnic relations, different groups of people are stratified into:

Upper strata: Usually categorised as the dominant, superordinate, superior,
or majority group.
Lower strata: Usually categorised as the subordinate, inferior, or minority
group. Generally, lower strata racial and ethnic groups are oppressed, denied
basic human rights, and discriminated by the upper strata group (please refer
to Figure 9.8).

Figure 9.8: Racial oppression
Source: almasweblog.wordpress.com

The forms of race and ethnic relations may be categorised as follows:

(i) Cooperation: This is motivated by collective interests. Cooperation may
happen between individuals (for example, neighbours) or between groups
(for example, political parties). Cooperation is the bedrock to creating unity
between different ethnic groups.
(ii) Competition: This is the process of beating someone else to gain access to
limited resources, such as work, rank, education, housing, land, and so on.
(iii) Conflict: This refers to a competitive process to acquire something by
weakening, defeating, or destroying the other party with the same interests.
The three forms of race and ethnic relations above raise various implications and
problems, some harmonious and others less so. Therefore, the question which is
raised is: how can different ethnic and racial groups co-exist? The following
social patterns cover a wide range of possibilities that may happen in racial and
ethnic relations all over the world:

(i) Assimilation: In most cases, the minority ethnic or racial group is
assimilated into the larger ethnic or racial group. Assimilation usually
involves cultural assimilation where the minority group adopts a great part
of the majority group's culture.

(ii) Pluralism: Some minority groups refuse to let go of their ethnic or racial
identity because they have a high degree of ethnic or racial consciousness
and are proud of their cultural heritage. At the same time, the dominant
group is willing to allow and encourage the existence of a plurality of
cultures in society.

(iii) Legal protection of minorities: In some countries, minority groups are
protected by law. For example, the Race Relation Act 1965 in England was
formed to safeguard the social and cultural interests of ethnic minorities.

(iv) Population transfer: In a situation where there is great conflict between
racial and ethnic groups, the solution involves transferring the racial and
ethnic population to another location.

(v) Continued subjugation: In some cases, the dominant group desires to retain
its privileges over the minority groups. To accomplish this, they will use
pressure to physically separate and segregate different racial and ethnic
groups.

(vi) Extermination: The extermination of whole populations or genocide is a
widespread social phenomenon in many parts of the world. The methods
used include execution using firearms or deliberately spreading contagious
diseases like small-pox among the target population.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
List and explain the various social patterns which characterise race
and ethnic relations.

9.4 ETHNIC CONFLICT

As mentioned above, race and ethnic relations may be harmonious or hostile.
Several basic factors contribute towards hostile relations between ethnic and
racial groups.

9.4.1 Racism and Ethnocentrism
Racism refers to the assumption that one's own race is superior to that of others.
Ethnocentrism, however, is the belief that elements in one's own culture (such as
religion, values, attitudes, and customs) are superior to that of other cultural groups.

9.4.2 Racism and Ethnocentrism: Functional or Dysfunctional?
The two assumptions mentioned above have hidden functions. Awareness of racial
superiority can create strong bonds of solidarity and togetherness among the
members of a racial or ethnic group. Adolf Hitler used the idea of the superiority of
the Aryan race to gain support for Nazism (please refer to Figure 9.9). On the other
hand, such assumptions may also be dysfunctional. Racism and ethnocentrism
may cause somebody to regard other groups as socially and culturally inferior. If
these assumptions are accepted without question, then it might be used as a
justification to oppress and exploit others. If this happens, then racial and ethnic

Figure 9.9: Adolf Hitler differences may lead to conflict and tension
Source: deviantart.com
in a multicultural society.

9.4.3 Causes of Racism and Ethnocentrism
We know that racism and ethnocentrism may lead to conflict. As such, conflict
theory is useful in analysing the causes which contribute to racism and
ethnocentrism. According to conflict theory, racism and ethnocentrism exist due
to competition between ethnic and racial groups over limited resources. Three
conditions lead to the formation of racism and ethnocentrism:

(i) There must be two or more social groups which may be identified through
physical and cultural differences.
(ii) There must be competition between these groups for valuable resources
such as power, land, or work.
(iii) There must be an imbalance of power between these groups. In other
words, there is one dominant group with greater power to deny the other
groups access to these valuable resources.

The greater the competition, the greater the feelings of racism and ethnocentrism.
The conflict perspective views economic inequalities as the cause for the increase
in racism and ethnocentrism. Conflict theory states that the white race has to
assume that the coloured race (the blacks) is not as dignified as they are in order
to rationalise the act of colonisation. Racist ideology justifies discrimination
towards blacks on the basis that their position is inferior, hence they are deemed
unfit to shoulder high positions, gain an education, or have access to other basic
facilities and services. Is this fair, given that we are all human at heart (please
refer to Figure 9.10).

Figure 9.10: Being a human is not a crime, being a racist?
Source: cjwriter.com


SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the formation of ethnocentrism and racism.

9.4.4 Prejudice and Discrimination
Racial and ethnic relations may be further strained by prejudice and
discrimination. PPrejudice refers to a negative view of people from other racial or
ethnic groups. Prejudice leads people to hate others because of ethnic or racial
differences and because they have traits which are deemed undesirable.

Discrimination refers to unfair and unequal treatment towards individuals or
groups on the basis of irrelevant criteria such as gender, race, ethnicity, or social
class. Discrimination happens when one group of people deny other groups of
people their rights because of racial and ethnic differences.

An important factor which brings about prejudice and discrimination is inaccurate
social perception about a racial or ethnic group. This perception is further
aggravated by a an early history of confrontation between these racial and ethnic
groups. Confrontation between these racial and ethnic groups will usually bring
about feelings of us and them. This is the attitude of viewing unfamiliar people
as outsiders, which means that one's relations with them is not equal to that
enjoyed with insiders. These feelings make us consider outsiders as the
enemy, untrustworthy, dubious, and unworthy of equal treatment.

The process of socialisation tends to worsen that perception, especially
when distorted perceptions are passed down from generation to generation.
Moreover, the mass media (television, films, newspapers, and the like) is
responsible for the perpetuation of this wrong perception, giving the
impression that a racial or ethnic group is violent, poor, or evil. For example,
Hollywood tends to portray blacks as Figure 9.11: Blacks as criminals
criminals, drunkards, and the cause of Source: thirdhandprojects.wordpress
various social and economic problems (please refer to Figure 9.11).



9.4.5 Stereotype
Prejudice and discrimination are closely linked to the concept of stereotype.
Stereotypes are presumed notions that form beliefs, expectations, and
expressions that may not be true. Stereotypes usually link negative traits to a
particular ethnic group, for example, the widespread belief that Malays are lazy.
This widely-held belief may have been formed due to past experiences, through
socialisation, or through hearsay.

Stereotypes take effect whenever someone meets people from other ethnic groups for the
first time. Though they may not possess any negative traits as popularly presumed,
stereotypes will cause us to have a bad impression of others from the beginning for no
good reason. For example, most people would have a bad first impression of Negros and
Africans upon encountering them because of the widespread belief that these ethnic groups
tend towards crime and violence. Our first impression would prove to be misguided if we
stop to consider who the current president of Figure 9.12: Barack Obama
the United States is (please refer to Figure 9.12). Source: emuneee.wordpress.com

Ethnic and racial groups which form the minority are not only prejudiced and
discriminated against. In certain cases, they become scapegoats, blamed by the
dominant group for any social, economic, or political problems which may arise
in the country. In Malaysia, immigrants from Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Vietnam, and other countries are often blamed for increasing incidences of crime
and moral depravity in the country.

ACTIVITY 9.3

With your friends, discuss some of the common stereotypes that
you know with an open mind. Is there some truth to these
stereotypes? How did these stereotypes come about?

9.5 ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS AND IDENTITY
Race and ethnic relations is a process which develops through time, beginning
with a preliminary social contract which hopefully would lead to unity. Yet this
process may not turn out this way. To facilitate our discussion, please take a look
at the following race and ethnic relations process which forms a continuum
beginning with segregation and eventually leading to biological integration
(please refer to Figure 9.13):


Figure 9.13: Race and ethnic relations process

(i) Segregation: Race and ethnic relations are characterised by separation
where racial and ethnic groups are physically, socially, and culturally set
apart from each other, for example, the apartheid system in South Africa.
(ii) Accommodation: Racial and ethnic groups co-exist in peace though they
still remain separate. Each group is politically represented and attempt to
compromise with each other to safeguard their rights and interests. This
relationship pattern is usually found in multicultural societies.
(iii) Acculturation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by cultural
assimilation, whereby different racial and ethnic groups borrow and absorb
cultural elements from each other. In extreme cases, the minority groups
tend to accept the dominant group's culture wholesale.
(iv) Assimilation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by structural
assimilation as opposed to cultural assimilation. At this level, minority
groups are absorbed into mainstream society not only at the cultural level
but also economically, educationally, and so on.
(v) Amalgamation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by interracial
marriages (please refer to Figure 9.14). As a result, a new race is formed and
unifies the various ethnic and racial groups. Theoretically, an ideal form of
integration happens when biological and racial factors are set aside, as
practiced in Brazil and Hawaii where interracial marriages are the norm.


Figure 9.14: Interracial marriage
Source: blog.dmichaelclary.com


SELF-CHECK 9.3
Explain the meaning of the following concepts:
Segregation
Accommodation
Acculturation
Assimilation
Amalgamation

Race and ethnic studies as a field social science have high practical value
because it is useful in solving racial conflict within the nation.

Race is a concept characterised by the biological features of a group,
whereas ethnicity refers to the cultural elements that differentiate one
social group from another.


Ethnic conflicts have negative consequences to a multicultural society
because it causes disunity and disorder in society. Ultimately, the nation
suffers economically, socially, and politically.

Ethnic unity promises a calmer social atmosphere which is more tolerant of
cultural difference. If this can be achieved, the nation will benefit because
everyone will work together towards realising shared goals.

Accommodation Extermination
Acculturation Legal Protection of Minorities
Assimilation Mongoloid
Assimilation Negroid
Caucasoid Pluralism
Competition Population Transfer
Conflict Prejudice
Continued Subjugation Race
Cooperation Racism
Discrimination Segregation
Ethnic Group Stereotype
Ethnicity Amalgamation
Ethnocentrism


Banton, M. (1987). Racial theories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scupin, R. (Ed.). (2003). Race and ethnicity. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Ting, C. P. (1987). Hubungan ras dan etnik: Satu pengantar. Kuala Lumpur:
Pustaka Dimensi.

Ting, C. P. (1997). Konsep asas sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.

Van den Berghe, P. L. (1967). Race and racism: A comparative perspective.
New York: John Wiley.