Topic 7 Mass Media and Propaganda
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Distinguish between propaganda and advertisement;
Describe the four propaganda theories;
Explain the role of mass media as a tool in political propaganda;
Discuss the influence of mass media in general elections;
Describe how the news and political communication process works;
and
Discuss the importance of mass media to change peopleÊs political
opinions.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will explore the role of propaganda through mass media in politics. As
you go through the course, you will be able to understand what propaganda and
political propaganda are in a political system. We will discuss the influence of mass
media in political propaganda (especially during general elections); how political
communication works, and the related theories. The overall objective is to critically
assess the role of mass media in a political setting, where their importance is taken
into cognisance to sway public opinion in favour of the government in power.
7.1 DEFINING PROPAGANDA
Propaganda can be defined as the spread of ideas, information or rumour for
the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person (Jowett &
O’Donnell, 2012). The primary purpose of propaganda is to make us believe,
accept or approve of something without looking closely at the evidence available.
It is very clear that most of the propaganda devices make use of emotions to
prevent critical thinking in people.
The origin of propaganda dates back to the sixteenth century during the Counter-
Reformation. It was used by the Society to propagate their Faith. It has also been
referred to as a no-holds barred use of communication to propagate specific beliefs
and expectations. Its ultimate goal is to change the way and manner people act.
For example, in the First World War, the Nazi Germany propaganda division was
of the view that the secret of a successful propaganda was to simplify a complex
issue and repeat that simplification several times. Figure 7.1 shows a quote on
propaganda.
Figure 7.1: Quote on propaganda
Source: https://goo.gl/images/EXCTqC
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of
something that is physical and specific. It services the economy or other particulars
areas, purposes and tasks. If you take a marketing class, you will be told that
advertising provides services to its intended audiences; it provides them the
needed information about the availability of products and so on. If you can accept
that, then you have just been propagandised. Although there could be some
element of truth to that claim, the fact is that there is a lot more going on with
advertising.
TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA
Advertisement manipulates people into buying things they never intended to buy
for some illegitimate reasons. However, they will not spend many hours telling
you about the evils in an advertising marketing class. Rather, you will be informed
about the positive sides of advertising in marketing. What you should bear in mind
is that: advertisement praises goods. Propaganda spreads idea and services only
politics.
Advertisement and propaganda have in common an organised set of methods to
disseminate information to the intended audience, which in some cases results in
people's acceptance or fulfilment of the needs they both present (McClintock,
2005). In recent years, the term has come to connote a political meaning and both
use agitators.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the differences between propaganda and advertisement?
7.2 POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
Political propaganda refers to the act of widely publicising deliberate and
misleading information so as to promote an idea or a particular course of action.
The driving point is that the said information is deliberately spread so as to make
it look real to the general public for some certain specific agenda created by those
in power. In most cases, political propaganda contains deliberate false information
(or even lies) that has some hidden agenda unknown to the general public to
achieve the purpose it is created for. Effective propaganda is covert and is used to
discredit the opposition.
Whenever politicians speak, what they are trying to do is to sell to you their
favourite cause, candidates or programmes. That is how politics works in most
cases. It is how information operation is spread; it is all about selling your
programme, product or idea to your audience. Political propaganda sometimes
contains some kind of deliberate false information. It could be agreed that „one
person's propaganda is another personÊs truth‰.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What do you understand by political propaganda? Explain in detail.
7.3 TYPES OF POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
There are many techniques used in the dissemination of propaganda (Miller, 1937).
Figure 7.2 shows the seven main types of political propaganda, which will be
explored further in the following subtopics.
Figure 7.2: Types of political propaganda
7.3.1 Bandwagon
Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a
writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument
of the writer, by suggesting that since majority agrees, the readers should too. An
example is „Everyone is voting for Ali, so definitely he is the best presidential
candidate.‰ The phrase bandwagon means „jump on the bandwagon,‰ or to follow
what others are conforming or doing.
It is about convincing people that everyone else has agreed to a particular cause,
view or candidate. While listening to a politician or reading a book written by one,
it is often observed that the speaker or writer tries to encourage the audience to
think and act in a particular way because others are doing that although the
audience may have ideas and beliefs of their own.
The idea behind „getting on the bandwagon‰ approach is for the propagandist to
put forth the idea that everyone is doing something to support this person/cause
so as to convince people to also do the same. Its characteristics include the
following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Widespread support;
Be part of the winning team; and
Not be left out, for instance, „We like Barack Obama‰.
The bandwagon approach has its attraction on widespread support from the
masses. It creates the impression that everyone is doing it, everyone has joined the
bandwagon so why not you. People by nature tend to be attracted by the majority
as they do not want to be left out. Moreover, it is satisfying to be part of the
winning team. Everyone wants to be a winner or at least to be associated with the
winning team. This is seen in politics and in sports, especially where football fans
want to be associated with the winning football team.
7.3.2 Name-calling
The use of derogatory language or words can negatively portray the opponent.
The use of such names naturally will evoke fear and or hatred in the viewer/
reader/audience. The characteristics of name-calling are:
(a)
(b)
To label the target; and
To use sarcasm and ridicule, for example, racist, fascist, yuppie scum.
Name-calling involves making a mockery of or laughing at what targeted others
say. They are criticised for their lack of values and their ideals are denounced. The
words and actions of the target are turned around, taking them out of context and
amplifying them to drown out any denial (making denial seem like admission of
guilt) (Miller, 1937).
In this propaganda technique we find a name that trivialises them and use it at
every opportunity, with a smirk on your face and the laughter of your supporters.
This goes a long way to make your opponents appear stupid, immoral or otherwise
undesirable.
Name-calling associates the other person with something that is despised or is
inferior in some way. The more the other person or group is socially isolated, the
more others will avoid the person or group. The results are a spiral of isolation that
neutralises opponents and sends a chilling warning to those who might follow in
that person’s path.
Note how, especially in wartime, the other side is given a whole slew of derogatory
names. In the Second World War, the Germans were called Huns, Krauts, the
Boche, and etc., while the Japanese were called Nips, Japs, Slant-eyes and so on.
7.3.3 Endorsement
Endorsement is used to support a candidate, or someone who is respected or liked,
or a particular group. Another name for this is testimonial. During Obama’s
presidential campaign, Oprah Winfrey and so many other popular celebrities in
the US endorsed him. This boosted his acceptance by the public.
For a celebrity endorsement or testimonials for example, the overall intention is to
associate the product or service with a well-known person in the society. If the
famous person believes that the said product is good, the idea then is that the
consumers will believe the product to be okay. For example, Michael Jordan is the
most commonly used sports figure for testimonials while Tiger Woods lends his
name to Nike.
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities
With this technique, the propagandists employ vague, sweeping statements (often
slogans or simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs
deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information or reason.
They appeal to such notions as honour, glory, love of country, desire for peace,
freedom, and family values. The words and phrases are vague and suggest
different things to different people but the implication is always favourable. It
cannot be proven true or false because it really says little or nothing at all.
The institute of propaganda analysis suggests a number of questions we should
ask ourselves if we are confronted with this technique. For example, what do the
slogans or phrases really mean? Is there a legitimate connection between the idea
being discussed and the true meaning of the slogan or phrase being used? What
are the merits of the idea itself if it is separated from the slogans or phrases?
This propaganda technique makes use of virtue words; the opposite of name
calling, i.e., a person, or idea is linked to a positive symbol, for example,
democracy, patriotism and family. This is an act of referring to words or ideas that
evoke a positive emotional response from an audience. In other words, it refers
to a statement that sounds good but in reality is essentially meaningless. Its
characteristics are vague, and in the form of slogans or catchphrases. For example,
During Barrack Obama’s presidential campaign he had this mantra „Change we
can believe in‰; Bill Clinton and Al GoreÊs was „Putting people first‰.
This technique uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good but provide little
or no information due to the vagueness of the message or the positive connotations
of the words. For example, a politician says, „a vote for me is a vote for peace.‰
7.3.5 Stacked Cards
This is an effort to present only one side of an issue and not its entirety. In using
this technique, facts which most effectively help to strengthen and authenticate the
point of view of the propagandist are selected and presented. It includes collecting
all the needed materials on a particular subject, as well as the selection of the
materials that most effectively support the propagandist’s point of view on the
candidate in question. His/her past misdeeds are covered up so that they do not
jeopardise the candidate’s chances.
The success or failure of this type of propaganda depends on the propagandist's
strategy of selecting facts or „cards‰ and presenting or „stacking‰ them to the
public. For example, when you see the advertisements of drug manufacturers, they
normally skim over the possible harmful side effects of their products. Facts
selected and presented to the public are those which could most effectively
strengthen the point of view of those propagandists who are championing the
cause.
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks
This type makes the average person think that the candidates are just like them
too. It is normally designed to win the confidence of the electorates by
communicating in the most common manner and style of the target audience. In
political propagandas, the propagandists could use the language and mannerisms
of ordinary folks (for example, wearing simple clothes in face-to-face audio visual
communication) in their bid to identify with the average person they are targeting.
In this way, it is possible for the propagandists to win the confidence of those who
resent or dislike foreign sounding intellectual speeches, words or mannerisms.
The most recent American Presidents were all millionaires, but you could see that
in most cases they have gone to great lengths to present themselves as ordinary
citizens. For example, Bill Clinton eats at McDonalds, Roland Reagan chops wood,
Jimmy Carter was a humble peanut farmer and lots more.
7.3.7 Fear
The fear propaganda technique plays on deep-seated fears; warns the audience
that disaster will result if they do not follow a particular course of action. This
technique involves presenting a dreaded circumstance and usually following it up
with the kind of behaviour needed to avoid that horrible event. For example, an
insurance company pamphlet includes pictures of houses destroyed by floods,
followed up by details about home-owners insurance.
When used in politics, the fear propaganda technique is meant to scare people into
voting for one particular candidate and not the other. The propagandists could
instil fear that your way of life is in danger. They could use pictures, sounds, or
words to arouse fear. For example, World War Three could break out. Will it begin
in the Middle East?
7.4 PROPAGANDA THEORIES IN THE 1930S
There are various theories related to propaganda. The four theories that influenced
propaganda in the 1930s are as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Behaviourism;
Freudianism;
Magic bullet theory; and
Lasswell's propaganda theory.
These theories will be discussed further in the following subtopics.
7.4.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism was formally founded by John B. Watson in 1913. An animalist, John
B. Watson, argued that all human action is merely a conditioned response to stimuli
from the external environment. He believed that the media provides the external
stimuli that trigger immediate responses by humans. Behaviourism is one of the
three primary learning theories. The primary goal of behaviourism is to form a
relationship between a stimulus and a response. Behaviourism has similar views as
those of the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology in the nineteenth
century. In the twentieth century behaviourism is a result of cognitive revolution,
while in the twenty-first century „behaviour analysis,‰ is a thriving field.
Behaviourism theorists include Ivan Pavlov, who was the founder of classical
conditioning and proposed that an unconditioned stimulus causes an
unconditioned response. John B. Watson, another behaviourist, coined the term
„behaviourism‰. He studied how a certain stimulus led organisms to make
responses. Watson believed psychology was only an objective observation of
behaviour. B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviourism, which proposed that all
action is determined and not free. Skinner talks about operant response, a
behaviour that controls the rate at which specific consequences occur.
Behaviourism equates learning with behaviours that can be observed and
measured. Reinforcement is key to successful transfer through behaviouristic
learning. Behaviourism places a strong emphasis on the stimulus, the response and
the relationship between them.
7.4.2 Freudianism
According to Sigmund Freud, the Ego is the rational mind in control. The Id is the
dark side of the self the egocentric (selfish and self-centred) pleasure seeking part
of ourselves that the Ego must struggle to keep in control. The Ego relies on an
internalised set of cultural rules, or Superego for guidance.
The propaganda theorists used Freudian theory to develop propaganda. It could
be effective if it could appeal directly to the Id and stimulate it to overwhelm or
overpower through effective propaganda. From this perspective, people were seen
as individuals incapable of rationalism and therefore incapable of self-control. In
this theory, people were seen as highly vulnerable to media manipulation and
media stimuli, based on the idea the Id could trigger action that the Ego and the
Superego are powerless to overcome.
7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory
During the 1920s, the media were assumed to operate like magic bullets that could
penetrate peoples minds and create associations between the strong emotions and
specific concepts (Severin & Tankard, 2001). As these magic bullets were carefully
controlled, the propagandists felt that they could condition people’s associations,
for example, to instil loyalty to and reverence for their country or to instil negative
emotions, such as fear and loathing, towards their enemies.
According to this theory, the rational mind is just a mere facade that is not capable
of resisting messages (McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005). This happened in in
October 1938 when H. G. Wells' War of the World, created panic among the radio
listeners who believed that the radio broadcast was true.
7.4.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
In this theory, Lasswell combined behaviourism and Freudianism into a particular
pessimism of the media and their role. Lasswell asserted that propaganda was not
so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific messages, but rather the
result of a vulnerable state of mind of the average individual in that country
(McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005).
He then argued that economic depression and the escalating political conflicts had
induced widespread psychosis and obsession; that because of this people become
susceptible to even crude forms of propaganda. Lasswell rejected the simplistic
magic bullet theory. He also believed that you need to prepare people in a gradual
process in order to convince them before they can accept radically different ideas
and actions.
There is need for communicators of propaganda messages to develop a long- term
campaign image in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and then
cultivated; symbols need to be created to make people associate them passionately
to specific emotions. If these cultivation strategies are to be successful, they can be
referred to as Master symbols. These Master symbols are then associated with
strong emotions and possess the power that could stimulate large scale beneficial
mass action if they are used wisely (Baran & Davis, 2009).
Lasswell envisioned a long and varied conditioning process. He believed that
exposure to just one or two extremist messages will not have much impact. For a
successful social movement to gain power, it could last for months and even
years using varieties of media. He proposed that power to control delivery of
propaganda through the mass media should be placed in the hands of a few elites
and scientific technocrats that would pledge to use their knowledge for good
rather than evil.
ACTIVITY 7.1
How did political propaganda influence your vote in MalaysiaÊs last
general election?
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Explain briefly each of the four propaganda theories.
7.5 MASS MEDIA AS TOOLS FOR POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
Mass media can disseminate news via radio, television, newspapers, the Internet
and other platforms to reach large numbers of people both nationally and
internationally, in the developed or developing countries. It is the mass media that
can shape public opinion more than anything else in any society. This is because it
is the main medium that carries cultural nuances and reinforces all the aspects that
make up the mainstream society at any given time. News items are so important,
since they can serve as a medium of public discussion and exchange of opinion.
For example, when „the Jewish question‰ was reported by the mass media and
continually presented as if it were an obvious central issue, it later became a
German issue and the German public was bombarded daily with coverage of „the
Jewish question‰ in print media and over the airwaves.
7.5.1 Power of the Mass Media
A historical example of propaganda use occurred in Nazi Germany. The
government used the power of mass media to persuade the majority of Germans
to think and accept that the most crucial question of the day was „What are
Germans going to do to all Jews that are in our country?‰ As they manipulated the
contents of the mass media and constantly used the communication channels of
mass media with the same central „problems‰ over an extended period of time,
the Nazi government created an unwarranted and false issue that was clearly their
own agenda to exterminate the Jews. The government-controlled Propaganda
Ministry was created by Hitler to control the national media network in order for
him to cement his authority on Germans and to achieve his personal objective to
control and rule the world.
During Hitler's reign, the Propaganda Ministry created films and posters, radio
broadcasts, children's literature and other propaganda materials to drive home
Hitler's message to his people. This was a great tool for him in the 1930s and served
the Nazis well throughout the Second World War until the propaganda lost its
effectiveness. Figure 7.3 shows a quote from Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister
of Propaganda of Nazi Germany.
Figure 7.3: A quote from Joseph Goebbels
Source: https://goo.gl/images/CrWAoD
7.6 MASS MEDIA AND GENERAL ELECTION
The general election in the United Kingdom gave each of the main political parties
free reign to spend millions of pounds on their cross media campaigns to win the
support and mandate of their people. Some of the campaign money was spent on
direct publicity, for example, creating advertisements on billboards and on the
pages of newspapers.
The campaign teams also use a range of social media. During interviews and
debates the leaders will reveal some of their sound bites which they hoped would
be picked up and broadcast in the nightly news prime time.
According to Lord Tim Bell, an advertising executive who advised Margaret
Thatcher during her three successful election campaigns, „People are more likely
to receive a message if it is delivered with humour than if you shout at them‰. The
mass media has great influence to turn the tide for a political party when the weak
points of its opponents are well handled. Tell the electorates the consequences of
the weak policies of the government and proffer solutions to the issue in question,
as if they are the ones that have most practical solutions to it.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1.
2.
What do you understand as the power of the mass media? Explain
with examples.
Look up the respective party logos/symbols of the leading political
parties in Malaysia and analyse each one of them. What are your
perceptions of the underlying values and ideologies? Discuss.
If you were a campaign manager for a political party in Malaysia,
how might you use media to build support?
3.
7.7 SMART PARTNERSHIP: NEWS AND THE POLITICAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The political communication process can be described as an interactive process
with regard to the transmission of information among politicians, news media and
the public. This smart partnership process is downward in its operation, from
governing institutions to citizens, horizontally in linkage among the political
actors and also upwards from public opinion to the authorities.
Its main focus is the production process of how messages are generated by the
political parties and different interest groups; how the messages are transmitted
through indirect and direct media communication channels.
Currently, there is also an increase in the number of political consultants, pollsters,
advertising executives and groups of people with personal interest in politics. This
enhances the process of strategic political communication by political parties and
the various interest groups. For example, NBC news in the US entered into smart
partnership with a leading political data firm for its in-depth reporting of the 2016
election to enhance election coverage and to study the voting process in depth in
the US.
In democratic societies, political communication has therefore been central to the
electoral process. In the last decade, however, this structural foundation has been
altered drastically, particularly in the post-war trend in the mass media moving
from its traditional world of newspapers, radio and television towards internet
usage. In fact, in the last few decades there is concern for the future of newspapers.
Many believe that in the recent decade the traditional standards of television news
and public affairs have come under threat from technological advancement and
economic development.
7.7.1 The Rise of Internet Usage in the Communication Process
Political communication has witnessed an important rapid change through the rise
of Internet. The use of networked computers and computer-mediated e-mails has
existed for the scientific elites as early as in the 1960s.
However, major breakthroughs in the 1990s transformed the Internet into a virtual
world, serving the functions of reference library, post office and shopping mall.
The major developments included the birth of the World Wide Web (WWW) in
1990 and the launching of other popular web browsers to access information, such
as Mosaic (1993), Netscape Navigator (1994) and Microsoft Internet Explorer
(1995) (Chapman, 2009). Other innovations include mp3 music files, digital
telephony and many others.
As the use of Internet spread globally, the globalised phenomenon became
apparent, and many more users around the world came online and became
netizens. Between 1995 and 2000, the total number of internet users rapidly grew
from about 26 million to 377 million worldwide, a truly explosive increase within
a space of a few years.
In Malaysia, the multimedia super corridor was established to bring investments
in the areas of telecommunication, multimedia and electronics, and to produce
silicon wafers and software. As part of MalaysiaÊs Vision 2020, Malaysians can
boast of cellular telephone penetration rates of one in every ten people, where the
current ratio could even be one in every three people. Many more schools are
wired and 21 internet hosts for 1000 people make it possible to undertake a more
vigorous political communication process.
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in the News and Political Communication Process
With the rise in internet usage, political communication seems to have entered a
new dimension. The political consequence of this is that there are changes in the
dissemination of news from traditional news media, which were mostly
dominated by newspapers, television and radio.
The cyber-optimists have the most positive perspective in the development and
emphasise „Panglossian‰ possibilities (optimistic) of the Internet use by ordinary
citizens in direct participation of democratic activities. In this regard, digital
technologies hold the promise as a mechanism to facilitate alternative channels of
civil engagement, such as the political chat-rooms, electronic voting in general
elections, as well as the referenda issues, and mobilisation of the virtual
communities, revitalising levels of general public participation in political affairs.
It is very clear that political communication through the use of the old media
channels is in the process of fundamental change, and this process holds both the
threats and promises for the future socioeconomic and political development of
the people. It could thus be stated that the digital networks have the potential to
broaden and to improve access to information and communication for remote
rural areas and poorer neighbourhoods. This could strengthen the process of
democratisation and help reduce the endemic problem of poverty, which is very
common in most developing countries.
7.8 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICAL CONSENSUS
In a democratic government, the ability to arrive at a consensus in the process of
decision making on legislation is largely influenced by mass media. The increasing
influence of media on the society at large, the behaviour of politicians and the
functioning of political and administrative institutions is called „mediatisation‰
(Stromback, 2008; Hajer, 2009). The question is whether the mass media in today's
society are living up to the social reality in its true sense; or do the elites which
control them filter what they see fit to be made public. If we take this into
consideration, what is considered as politics in today's world, i.e. the activity of
professional politicians „representing‰ the people, one may argue that it is politics
itself which is fake, and mass media simply reproduces what it represents.
Mass media, which is mostly owned by the political elites, provides a different
political reality to society. There is a tendency to tell the general public what
reflects the feelings of the section of elites who control them. A good example
is the way in which the Anglo-American media distorted the real motive behind
the criminal bombardment of the Iraqi people at the end of 1998. The media in
this case was efficiently used to serve the interests of the Anglo-Americans,
notwithstanding that many countries opposed the idea of attacking a sovereign
nation. They justified the invasion and made the general public believe it was a
conflict between the peace loving regimes in the North versus the rogue regimes
in the South, or, in more sophisticated versions supported by social democrat
intellectuals, as a conflict between the „democracies‰ in the North versus the
„despotic regimes‰ in the South over the control of oil (Picard, 1998).
It is not accidental that in the US and the UK, where the media are sometimes
guilty of misinformation and disinformation, opinion polls showed consistently
that the vast majority were in favour of the decision making of their elites during
that period of the Iraqi war.
7.8.1 The Role of the Media in Political Consensus
The media always plays an important role and acts as an indicator of the
public agenda and the public mood. Both the administrators and politiciansÊ
responsiveness to media coverage is often considered to be important for
enhancing democratic legitimacy. Ironically, the media is supposed to provide a
means to increase transparency on legislative decision-making processes and
policy outcomes (McChesney, 1999).
In addition, the media is actively used by political and administrative institutions
as outlets to inform the general public, and sometimes to indirectly influence
decision-making processes. In the latter case, communication via the media can be
considered a political strategy. However, it is known that the citizens on their own
will only support a political regime which they believe in and which corresponds
to their political values at most times.
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus
The social media has caused the political elites to lose their monopoly of news in
the contemporary political environment. The advent of todayÊs social media has
influenced what issues politicians perceive as salient information exclusively for
the elites (Zaller, 1999; Margolis & Resnick, 2000). It is argued that social media
represents citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and direct way.
In contrast, traditional media constitute a stable and well-known information
landscape for policy makers, which most often is distorted to serve the elites who
own media organisations. The social media landscape is rather new and versatile.
There is still relatively little knowledge on how governments and politicians are
using and responding to social media.
It could be rightly concluded therefore that the role of the media today is not to
make the system more democratic. In fact, one basic function of the media is, as
Chomsky (2002) stresses, to help in keeping the general population out of the
public arena because if they get involved they will just make trouble. Their job is
to be „spectators,‰ not „participants‰.
Moreover, the media can also play a crucial role in offsetting the democratic rights
and freedoms won after long struggles. This has been the case all along, when there
was a clash between the elites and trade unions, or other popular movements.
Walter Lippmann, the revered American journalist was explicit about it.
7.9 MASS MEDIA, CONFLICT AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
It is very clear that information is very powerful and can impact either positively
or negatively on public discourses. It can therefore shape what we hear or see
during conflicts. This is true because, the perspective of those who control or run
the affairs in the media shapes the news that is disseminated to the general public.
It could change the people’s view on issues about which they initially have little
interest. It could even incite people to violence. For example, Hitler used the media
to create an entire world view of hatred for the Jews, homosexuals and even some
minorities during his time.
It is very clear that most media professionals determine what their target audience
want to see and hear. In journalism, the common principle is generally known as
„when it bleeds it leads‰. In other words, violent conflicts make front page news
and not news that hangs on dialogue and understanding. The media seem to be
covering conflicts rather than dialogue, although they should be doing the latter.
By always covering conflicts, the media distorts the reality, which leads to the
erroneous belief among the general public that peace is pervasive and therefore
seen as abnormal.
7.9.1 Functions of the Media in Conflicts and Peace Building
The media plays an important role in our everyday life, although it could be
argued that this role could be constructive and sometimes destructive. For
example, the media could disseminate peaceful information and also counter hate-
speech, therefore creating a balance of opinion in a local environment, which is
called information equilibrium. On the other hand, it can incite the society to
violence just like in 2006 where a cartoonist in Denmark created a message about
Islam which caused international conflict.
The media, in some cases, finds it difficult to create a balance between countering
and preventing hate-speech which can be the private opinion of individuals. The
media should be seen as being truthful, fair and balanced in presenting accounts
of events or situations.
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace Promoter
In most cases, the privately owned media serves as a watchdog for the general
public. The perception is that the public media, controlled by the ruling elites,
could hide some true situations in order not to give the opposition a chance to
ridicule their policies, which could lead to losing support from the electorates.
In Sierra Leone, a video documentary exposed the incidence of sexual violence on
women during the civil war there. The film entitled Operation Fine Girl: Rape
Used as a Weapon of War in Sierra was produced by human rights activists with
support from the international non-governmental organisation „Witness‰. It
raised an international outcry and condemnation that led to an investigation for
this heinous crime against women in that country.
Media events can also be used to promote peace and negotiation, to solve
diplomatic deadlocks and to create a conducive environment whenever there are
conflicts among communities, regions and countries. For example, Studio Ijambo,
which had a team of 20 people consisting of Hutu and Tutsi journalists, was
engaged in producing about 100 radio programmes with the purpose of promoting
peace and to reconcile warring factions in the country.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the media plays a very crucial role in our
society. They do not only influence the public to support positive issues, but must
also recognise potential conflict and address it before the problem gets out of hand.
Although international media covering conflicts might have a different viewpoint,
the local media is a recognised part of society and expected to have the ability to
reduce fears. The media should be capable of defusing tension before conflict
escalates to a more critical point. Therefore the media should play the role of a
watchdog or the „fourth estate‰ or „fifth estate‰. When the media avoids hate
speech it helps the people to be at peace with one another in society, and to prevent
racial abuse, violence, and unnecessary bloodshed.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1.
How has the rise of Internet usage influenced political participation
of the electorate in Malaysia? What are the implications to
Malaysian politics? Discuss with examples.
Describe the role of the local media in resolving conflict in society.
Explain the role of the social media in achieving political consensus
in a democratic government.
Explain the role of media to defuse tension in the 1969 race riot in
Malaysia. Please avoid sentiment in answering this question.
2.
3.
4.
•
Propaganda is the spread of ideas, information or rumours for the purpose of
helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person. The primary purpose
of propaganda is to make the target audience believe, accept or approve of
something without looking closely at the evidence available.
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of a
service or product that is physical and specific. Advertisement praises goods.
Propaganda spreads ideas. Propaganda services only political purposes.
Types of political propaganda are bandwagon, name calling, endorsement,
glittering generalities, stacked cards, just plain folks, and fear.
Lasswell's propaganda theory combines both behaviourism and Freudianism
into a particularly pessimistic view of the media. Lasswell is of the view that
propaganda is not so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific
messages, but rather the result of the vulnerable state of mind of the average
person in that country.
Social media influence whatever issues politicians perceive as salient. Social
media is said to represent citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and
direct way. In contrast, traditional media constitutes a stable and well-known
information landscape for policy makers, and is sometimes perceived as being
of service to the elites who own it.
•
•
•
•
Communication
Conflicts
Election
Government
Internet
Mass media
Political communication
Political consensus
Political propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda theories
Social media
Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2009). Mass communication theory: Foundations,
ferment, and future (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Chapman, C. (2009). The history of the Internet in a nutshell. Retrieved from
http://sixrevisions.com/resources/the-history-of-the-internet-in-a-
nutshell/
Chomsky, N. (2002). Media control: The spectacular achievements of propaganda.
Vancouver, Canada: Open Media Books.
Hajer, M. A. (2009). Authoritative governance: Policy-making in the age of
mediatization. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Jowett, G. S., & OÊDonnell, V. (2012). Propaganda and persuasion (5th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Margolis, M., & Resnick, D. (2000). Politics as usual: The cyberspace „revolution‰.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McChesney, R. W. (1999). Rich media, poor democracy: Communication politics
in dubious times. Illinois, IL: University of Illinois Press.
McClintock, A. (2005). Propaganda techniques in todayÊs advertising. In
P. S. Gardner (Ed.), New directions: Reading, writing, and critical thinking
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
McQuail, D., Golding, P., & Bens, E. D. (Eds.). (2005). Communication theory &
research: An EJC anthology. London, England: Sage.
Miller, C. (1937). Propaganda analysis. New York, NY: Institute for Propaganda
Analysis.
Picard, R. G. (1998). Media concentration, economics, and regulation. In D. Graber,
D. McQuail, & P. Norris (Eds.), The politics of news: The news of politics.
Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Severin, W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (2001). Communication theories: Origins, methods
and uses in mass media (5th ed). New York, NY: Longman.
Zaller, J. (1999). A theory of media politics: How the interests of politicians,
journalists, and citizens shape the news. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Stromback, J. (2008). Four phases of mediatization: An analysis of the
mediatization of politics. International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(3),
228 246.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Distinguish between propaganda and advertisement;
Describe the four propaganda theories;
Explain the role of mass media as a tool in political propaganda;
Discuss the influence of mass media in general elections;
Describe how the news and political communication process works;
and
Discuss the importance of mass media to change peopleÊs political
opinions.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will explore the role of propaganda through mass media in politics. As
you go through the course, you will be able to understand what propaganda and
political propaganda are in a political system. We will discuss the influence of mass
media in political propaganda (especially during general elections); how political
communication works, and the related theories. The overall objective is to critically
assess the role of mass media in a political setting, where their importance is taken
into cognisance to sway public opinion in favour of the government in power.
7.1 DEFINING PROPAGANDA
Propaganda can be defined as the spread of ideas, information or rumour for
the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person (Jowett &
O’Donnell, 2012). The primary purpose of propaganda is to make us believe,
accept or approve of something without looking closely at the evidence available.
It is very clear that most of the propaganda devices make use of emotions to
prevent critical thinking in people.
The origin of propaganda dates back to the sixteenth century during the Counter-
Reformation. It was used by the Society to propagate their Faith. It has also been
referred to as a no-holds barred use of communication to propagate specific beliefs
and expectations. Its ultimate goal is to change the way and manner people act.
For example, in the First World War, the Nazi Germany propaganda division was
of the view that the secret of a successful propaganda was to simplify a complex
issue and repeat that simplification several times. Figure 7.1 shows a quote on
propaganda.
Figure 7.1: Quote on propaganda
Source: https://goo.gl/images/EXCTqC
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of
something that is physical and specific. It services the economy or other particulars
areas, purposes and tasks. If you take a marketing class, you will be told that
advertising provides services to its intended audiences; it provides them the
needed information about the availability of products and so on. If you can accept
that, then you have just been propagandised. Although there could be some
element of truth to that claim, the fact is that there is a lot more going on with
advertising.
TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA
Advertisement manipulates people into buying things they never intended to buy
for some illegitimate reasons. However, they will not spend many hours telling
you about the evils in an advertising marketing class. Rather, you will be informed
about the positive sides of advertising in marketing. What you should bear in mind
is that: advertisement praises goods. Propaganda spreads idea and services only
politics.
Advertisement and propaganda have in common an organised set of methods to
disseminate information to the intended audience, which in some cases results in
people's acceptance or fulfilment of the needs they both present (McClintock,
2005). In recent years, the term has come to connote a political meaning and both
use agitators.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the differences between propaganda and advertisement?
7.2 POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
Political propaganda refers to the act of widely publicising deliberate and
misleading information so as to promote an idea or a particular course of action.
The driving point is that the said information is deliberately spread so as to make
it look real to the general public for some certain specific agenda created by those
in power. In most cases, political propaganda contains deliberate false information
(or even lies) that has some hidden agenda unknown to the general public to
achieve the purpose it is created for. Effective propaganda is covert and is used to
discredit the opposition.
Whenever politicians speak, what they are trying to do is to sell to you their
favourite cause, candidates or programmes. That is how politics works in most
cases. It is how information operation is spread; it is all about selling your
programme, product or idea to your audience. Political propaganda sometimes
contains some kind of deliberate false information. It could be agreed that „one
person's propaganda is another personÊs truth‰.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What do you understand by political propaganda? Explain in detail.
7.3 TYPES OF POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
There are many techniques used in the dissemination of propaganda (Miller, 1937).
Figure 7.2 shows the seven main types of political propaganda, which will be
explored further in the following subtopics.
Figure 7.2: Types of political propaganda
7.3.1 Bandwagon
Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a
writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument
of the writer, by suggesting that since majority agrees, the readers should too. An
example is „Everyone is voting for Ali, so definitely he is the best presidential
candidate.‰ The phrase bandwagon means „jump on the bandwagon,‰ or to follow
what others are conforming or doing.
It is about convincing people that everyone else has agreed to a particular cause,
view or candidate. While listening to a politician or reading a book written by one,
it is often observed that the speaker or writer tries to encourage the audience to
think and act in a particular way because others are doing that although the
audience may have ideas and beliefs of their own.
The idea behind „getting on the bandwagon‰ approach is for the propagandist to
put forth the idea that everyone is doing something to support this person/cause
so as to convince people to also do the same. Its characteristics include the
following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Widespread support;
Be part of the winning team; and
Not be left out, for instance, „We like Barack Obama‰.
The bandwagon approach has its attraction on widespread support from the
masses. It creates the impression that everyone is doing it, everyone has joined the
bandwagon so why not you. People by nature tend to be attracted by the majority
as they do not want to be left out. Moreover, it is satisfying to be part of the
winning team. Everyone wants to be a winner or at least to be associated with the
winning team. This is seen in politics and in sports, especially where football fans
want to be associated with the winning football team.
7.3.2 Name-calling
The use of derogatory language or words can negatively portray the opponent.
The use of such names naturally will evoke fear and or hatred in the viewer/
reader/audience. The characteristics of name-calling are:
(a)
(b)
To label the target; and
To use sarcasm and ridicule, for example, racist, fascist, yuppie scum.
Name-calling involves making a mockery of or laughing at what targeted others
say. They are criticised for their lack of values and their ideals are denounced. The
words and actions of the target are turned around, taking them out of context and
amplifying them to drown out any denial (making denial seem like admission of
guilt) (Miller, 1937).
In this propaganda technique we find a name that trivialises them and use it at
every opportunity, with a smirk on your face and the laughter of your supporters.
This goes a long way to make your opponents appear stupid, immoral or otherwise
undesirable.
Name-calling associates the other person with something that is despised or is
inferior in some way. The more the other person or group is socially isolated, the
more others will avoid the person or group. The results are a spiral of isolation that
neutralises opponents and sends a chilling warning to those who might follow in
that person’s path.
Note how, especially in wartime, the other side is given a whole slew of derogatory
names. In the Second World War, the Germans were called Huns, Krauts, the
Boche, and etc., while the Japanese were called Nips, Japs, Slant-eyes and so on.
7.3.3 Endorsement
Endorsement is used to support a candidate, or someone who is respected or liked,
or a particular group. Another name for this is testimonial. During Obama’s
presidential campaign, Oprah Winfrey and so many other popular celebrities in
the US endorsed him. This boosted his acceptance by the public.
For a celebrity endorsement or testimonials for example, the overall intention is to
associate the product or service with a well-known person in the society. If the
famous person believes that the said product is good, the idea then is that the
consumers will believe the product to be okay. For example, Michael Jordan is the
most commonly used sports figure for testimonials while Tiger Woods lends his
name to Nike.
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities
With this technique, the propagandists employ vague, sweeping statements (often
slogans or simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs
deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information or reason.
They appeal to such notions as honour, glory, love of country, desire for peace,
freedom, and family values. The words and phrases are vague and suggest
different things to different people but the implication is always favourable. It
cannot be proven true or false because it really says little or nothing at all.
The institute of propaganda analysis suggests a number of questions we should
ask ourselves if we are confronted with this technique. For example, what do the
slogans or phrases really mean? Is there a legitimate connection between the idea
being discussed and the true meaning of the slogan or phrase being used? What
are the merits of the idea itself if it is separated from the slogans or phrases?
This propaganda technique makes use of virtue words; the opposite of name
calling, i.e., a person, or idea is linked to a positive symbol, for example,
democracy, patriotism and family. This is an act of referring to words or ideas that
evoke a positive emotional response from an audience. In other words, it refers
to a statement that sounds good but in reality is essentially meaningless. Its
characteristics are vague, and in the form of slogans or catchphrases. For example,
During Barrack Obama’s presidential campaign he had this mantra „Change we
can believe in‰; Bill Clinton and Al GoreÊs was „Putting people first‰.
This technique uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good but provide little
or no information due to the vagueness of the message or the positive connotations
of the words. For example, a politician says, „a vote for me is a vote for peace.‰
7.3.5 Stacked Cards
This is an effort to present only one side of an issue and not its entirety. In using
this technique, facts which most effectively help to strengthen and authenticate the
point of view of the propagandist are selected and presented. It includes collecting
all the needed materials on a particular subject, as well as the selection of the
materials that most effectively support the propagandist’s point of view on the
candidate in question. His/her past misdeeds are covered up so that they do not
jeopardise the candidate’s chances.
The success or failure of this type of propaganda depends on the propagandist's
strategy of selecting facts or „cards‰ and presenting or „stacking‰ them to the
public. For example, when you see the advertisements of drug manufacturers, they
normally skim over the possible harmful side effects of their products. Facts
selected and presented to the public are those which could most effectively
strengthen the point of view of those propagandists who are championing the
cause.
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks
This type makes the average person think that the candidates are just like them
too. It is normally designed to win the confidence of the electorates by
communicating in the most common manner and style of the target audience. In
political propagandas, the propagandists could use the language and mannerisms
of ordinary folks (for example, wearing simple clothes in face-to-face audio visual
communication) in their bid to identify with the average person they are targeting.
In this way, it is possible for the propagandists to win the confidence of those who
resent or dislike foreign sounding intellectual speeches, words or mannerisms.
The most recent American Presidents were all millionaires, but you could see that
in most cases they have gone to great lengths to present themselves as ordinary
citizens. For example, Bill Clinton eats at McDonalds, Roland Reagan chops wood,
Jimmy Carter was a humble peanut farmer and lots more.
7.3.7 Fear
The fear propaganda technique plays on deep-seated fears; warns the audience
that disaster will result if they do not follow a particular course of action. This
technique involves presenting a dreaded circumstance and usually following it up
with the kind of behaviour needed to avoid that horrible event. For example, an
insurance company pamphlet includes pictures of houses destroyed by floods,
followed up by details about home-owners insurance.
When used in politics, the fear propaganda technique is meant to scare people into
voting for one particular candidate and not the other. The propagandists could
instil fear that your way of life is in danger. They could use pictures, sounds, or
words to arouse fear. For example, World War Three could break out. Will it begin
in the Middle East?
7.4 PROPAGANDA THEORIES IN THE 1930S
There are various theories related to propaganda. The four theories that influenced
propaganda in the 1930s are as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Behaviourism;
Freudianism;
Magic bullet theory; and
Lasswell's propaganda theory.
These theories will be discussed further in the following subtopics.
7.4.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism was formally founded by John B. Watson in 1913. An animalist, John
B. Watson, argued that all human action is merely a conditioned response to stimuli
from the external environment. He believed that the media provides the external
stimuli that trigger immediate responses by humans. Behaviourism is one of the
three primary learning theories. The primary goal of behaviourism is to form a
relationship between a stimulus and a response. Behaviourism has similar views as
those of the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology in the nineteenth
century. In the twentieth century behaviourism is a result of cognitive revolution,
while in the twenty-first century „behaviour analysis,‰ is a thriving field.
Behaviourism theorists include Ivan Pavlov, who was the founder of classical
conditioning and proposed that an unconditioned stimulus causes an
unconditioned response. John B. Watson, another behaviourist, coined the term
„behaviourism‰. He studied how a certain stimulus led organisms to make
responses. Watson believed psychology was only an objective observation of
behaviour. B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviourism, which proposed that all
action is determined and not free. Skinner talks about operant response, a
behaviour that controls the rate at which specific consequences occur.
Behaviourism equates learning with behaviours that can be observed and
measured. Reinforcement is key to successful transfer through behaviouristic
learning. Behaviourism places a strong emphasis on the stimulus, the response and
the relationship between them.
7.4.2 Freudianism
According to Sigmund Freud, the Ego is the rational mind in control. The Id is the
dark side of the self the egocentric (selfish and self-centred) pleasure seeking part
of ourselves that the Ego must struggle to keep in control. The Ego relies on an
internalised set of cultural rules, or Superego for guidance.
The propaganda theorists used Freudian theory to develop propaganda. It could
be effective if it could appeal directly to the Id and stimulate it to overwhelm or
overpower through effective propaganda. From this perspective, people were seen
as individuals incapable of rationalism and therefore incapable of self-control. In
this theory, people were seen as highly vulnerable to media manipulation and
media stimuli, based on the idea the Id could trigger action that the Ego and the
Superego are powerless to overcome.
7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory
During the 1920s, the media were assumed to operate like magic bullets that could
penetrate peoples minds and create associations between the strong emotions and
specific concepts (Severin & Tankard, 2001). As these magic bullets were carefully
controlled, the propagandists felt that they could condition people’s associations,
for example, to instil loyalty to and reverence for their country or to instil negative
emotions, such as fear and loathing, towards their enemies.
According to this theory, the rational mind is just a mere facade that is not capable
of resisting messages (McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005). This happened in in
October 1938 when H. G. Wells' War of the World, created panic among the radio
listeners who believed that the radio broadcast was true.
7.4.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
In this theory, Lasswell combined behaviourism and Freudianism into a particular
pessimism of the media and their role. Lasswell asserted that propaganda was not
so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific messages, but rather the
result of a vulnerable state of mind of the average individual in that country
(McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005).
He then argued that economic depression and the escalating political conflicts had
induced widespread psychosis and obsession; that because of this people become
susceptible to even crude forms of propaganda. Lasswell rejected the simplistic
magic bullet theory. He also believed that you need to prepare people in a gradual
process in order to convince them before they can accept radically different ideas
and actions.
There is need for communicators of propaganda messages to develop a long- term
campaign image in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and then
cultivated; symbols need to be created to make people associate them passionately
to specific emotions. If these cultivation strategies are to be successful, they can be
referred to as Master symbols. These Master symbols are then associated with
strong emotions and possess the power that could stimulate large scale beneficial
mass action if they are used wisely (Baran & Davis, 2009).
Lasswell envisioned a long and varied conditioning process. He believed that
exposure to just one or two extremist messages will not have much impact. For a
successful social movement to gain power, it could last for months and even
years using varieties of media. He proposed that power to control delivery of
propaganda through the mass media should be placed in the hands of a few elites
and scientific technocrats that would pledge to use their knowledge for good
rather than evil.
ACTIVITY 7.1
How did political propaganda influence your vote in MalaysiaÊs last
general election?
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Explain briefly each of the four propaganda theories.
7.5 MASS MEDIA AS TOOLS FOR POLITICAL PROPAGANDA
Mass media can disseminate news via radio, television, newspapers, the Internet
and other platforms to reach large numbers of people both nationally and
internationally, in the developed or developing countries. It is the mass media that
can shape public opinion more than anything else in any society. This is because it
is the main medium that carries cultural nuances and reinforces all the aspects that
make up the mainstream society at any given time. News items are so important,
since they can serve as a medium of public discussion and exchange of opinion.
For example, when „the Jewish question‰ was reported by the mass media and
continually presented as if it were an obvious central issue, it later became a
German issue and the German public was bombarded daily with coverage of „the
Jewish question‰ in print media and over the airwaves.
7.5.1 Power of the Mass Media
A historical example of propaganda use occurred in Nazi Germany. The
government used the power of mass media to persuade the majority of Germans
to think and accept that the most crucial question of the day was „What are
Germans going to do to all Jews that are in our country?‰ As they manipulated the
contents of the mass media and constantly used the communication channels of
mass media with the same central „problems‰ over an extended period of time,
the Nazi government created an unwarranted and false issue that was clearly their
own agenda to exterminate the Jews. The government-controlled Propaganda
Ministry was created by Hitler to control the national media network in order for
him to cement his authority on Germans and to achieve his personal objective to
control and rule the world.
During Hitler's reign, the Propaganda Ministry created films and posters, radio
broadcasts, children's literature and other propaganda materials to drive home
Hitler's message to his people. This was a great tool for him in the 1930s and served
the Nazis well throughout the Second World War until the propaganda lost its
effectiveness. Figure 7.3 shows a quote from Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister
of Propaganda of Nazi Germany.
Figure 7.3: A quote from Joseph Goebbels
Source: https://goo.gl/images/CrWAoD
7.6 MASS MEDIA AND GENERAL ELECTION
The general election in the United Kingdom gave each of the main political parties
free reign to spend millions of pounds on their cross media campaigns to win the
support and mandate of their people. Some of the campaign money was spent on
direct publicity, for example, creating advertisements on billboards and on the
pages of newspapers.
The campaign teams also use a range of social media. During interviews and
debates the leaders will reveal some of their sound bites which they hoped would
be picked up and broadcast in the nightly news prime time.
According to Lord Tim Bell, an advertising executive who advised Margaret
Thatcher during her three successful election campaigns, „People are more likely
to receive a message if it is delivered with humour than if you shout at them‰. The
mass media has great influence to turn the tide for a political party when the weak
points of its opponents are well handled. Tell the electorates the consequences of
the weak policies of the government and proffer solutions to the issue in question,
as if they are the ones that have most practical solutions to it.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1.
2.
What do you understand as the power of the mass media? Explain
with examples.
Look up the respective party logos/symbols of the leading political
parties in Malaysia and analyse each one of them. What are your
perceptions of the underlying values and ideologies? Discuss.
If you were a campaign manager for a political party in Malaysia,
how might you use media to build support?
3.
7.7 SMART PARTNERSHIP: NEWS AND THE POLITICAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The political communication process can be described as an interactive process
with regard to the transmission of information among politicians, news media and
the public. This smart partnership process is downward in its operation, from
governing institutions to citizens, horizontally in linkage among the political
actors and also upwards from public opinion to the authorities.
Its main focus is the production process of how messages are generated by the
political parties and different interest groups; how the messages are transmitted
through indirect and direct media communication channels.
Currently, there is also an increase in the number of political consultants, pollsters,
advertising executives and groups of people with personal interest in politics. This
enhances the process of strategic political communication by political parties and
the various interest groups. For example, NBC news in the US entered into smart
partnership with a leading political data firm for its in-depth reporting of the 2016
election to enhance election coverage and to study the voting process in depth in
the US.
In democratic societies, political communication has therefore been central to the
electoral process. In the last decade, however, this structural foundation has been
altered drastically, particularly in the post-war trend in the mass media moving
from its traditional world of newspapers, radio and television towards internet
usage. In fact, in the last few decades there is concern for the future of newspapers.
Many believe that in the recent decade the traditional standards of television news
and public affairs have come under threat from technological advancement and
economic development.
7.7.1 The Rise of Internet Usage in the Communication Process
Political communication has witnessed an important rapid change through the rise
of Internet. The use of networked computers and computer-mediated e-mails has
existed for the scientific elites as early as in the 1960s.
However, major breakthroughs in the 1990s transformed the Internet into a virtual
world, serving the functions of reference library, post office and shopping mall.
The major developments included the birth of the World Wide Web (WWW) in
1990 and the launching of other popular web browsers to access information, such
as Mosaic (1993), Netscape Navigator (1994) and Microsoft Internet Explorer
(1995) (Chapman, 2009). Other innovations include mp3 music files, digital
telephony and many others.
As the use of Internet spread globally, the globalised phenomenon became
apparent, and many more users around the world came online and became
netizens. Between 1995 and 2000, the total number of internet users rapidly grew
from about 26 million to 377 million worldwide, a truly explosive increase within
a space of a few years.
In Malaysia, the multimedia super corridor was established to bring investments
in the areas of telecommunication, multimedia and electronics, and to produce
silicon wafers and software. As part of MalaysiaÊs Vision 2020, Malaysians can
boast of cellular telephone penetration rates of one in every ten people, where the
current ratio could even be one in every three people. Many more schools are
wired and 21 internet hosts for 1000 people make it possible to undertake a more
vigorous political communication process.
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in the News and Political Communication Process
With the rise in internet usage, political communication seems to have entered a
new dimension. The political consequence of this is that there are changes in the
dissemination of news from traditional news media, which were mostly
dominated by newspapers, television and radio.
The cyber-optimists have the most positive perspective in the development and
emphasise „Panglossian‰ possibilities (optimistic) of the Internet use by ordinary
citizens in direct participation of democratic activities. In this regard, digital
technologies hold the promise as a mechanism to facilitate alternative channels of
civil engagement, such as the political chat-rooms, electronic voting in general
elections, as well as the referenda issues, and mobilisation of the virtual
communities, revitalising levels of general public participation in political affairs.
It is very clear that political communication through the use of the old media
channels is in the process of fundamental change, and this process holds both the
threats and promises for the future socioeconomic and political development of
the people. It could thus be stated that the digital networks have the potential to
broaden and to improve access to information and communication for remote
rural areas and poorer neighbourhoods. This could strengthen the process of
democratisation and help reduce the endemic problem of poverty, which is very
common in most developing countries.
7.8 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICAL CONSENSUS
In a democratic government, the ability to arrive at a consensus in the process of
decision making on legislation is largely influenced by mass media. The increasing
influence of media on the society at large, the behaviour of politicians and the
functioning of political and administrative institutions is called „mediatisation‰
(Stromback, 2008; Hajer, 2009). The question is whether the mass media in today's
society are living up to the social reality in its true sense; or do the elites which
control them filter what they see fit to be made public. If we take this into
consideration, what is considered as politics in today's world, i.e. the activity of
professional politicians „representing‰ the people, one may argue that it is politics
itself which is fake, and mass media simply reproduces what it represents.
Mass media, which is mostly owned by the political elites, provides a different
political reality to society. There is a tendency to tell the general public what
reflects the feelings of the section of elites who control them. A good example
is the way in which the Anglo-American media distorted the real motive behind
the criminal bombardment of the Iraqi people at the end of 1998. The media in
this case was efficiently used to serve the interests of the Anglo-Americans,
notwithstanding that many countries opposed the idea of attacking a sovereign
nation. They justified the invasion and made the general public believe it was a
conflict between the peace loving regimes in the North versus the rogue regimes
in the South, or, in more sophisticated versions supported by social democrat
intellectuals, as a conflict between the „democracies‰ in the North versus the
„despotic regimes‰ in the South over the control of oil (Picard, 1998).
It is not accidental that in the US and the UK, where the media are sometimes
guilty of misinformation and disinformation, opinion polls showed consistently
that the vast majority were in favour of the decision making of their elites during
that period of the Iraqi war.
7.8.1 The Role of the Media in Political Consensus
The media always plays an important role and acts as an indicator of the
public agenda and the public mood. Both the administrators and politiciansÊ
responsiveness to media coverage is often considered to be important for
enhancing democratic legitimacy. Ironically, the media is supposed to provide a
means to increase transparency on legislative decision-making processes and
policy outcomes (McChesney, 1999).
In addition, the media is actively used by political and administrative institutions
as outlets to inform the general public, and sometimes to indirectly influence
decision-making processes. In the latter case, communication via the media can be
considered a political strategy. However, it is known that the citizens on their own
will only support a political regime which they believe in and which corresponds
to their political values at most times.
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus
The social media has caused the political elites to lose their monopoly of news in
the contemporary political environment. The advent of todayÊs social media has
influenced what issues politicians perceive as salient information exclusively for
the elites (Zaller, 1999; Margolis & Resnick, 2000). It is argued that social media
represents citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and direct way.
In contrast, traditional media constitute a stable and well-known information
landscape for policy makers, which most often is distorted to serve the elites who
own media organisations. The social media landscape is rather new and versatile.
There is still relatively little knowledge on how governments and politicians are
using and responding to social media.
It could be rightly concluded therefore that the role of the media today is not to
make the system more democratic. In fact, one basic function of the media is, as
Chomsky (2002) stresses, to help in keeping the general population out of the
public arena because if they get involved they will just make trouble. Their job is
to be „spectators,‰ not „participants‰.
Moreover, the media can also play a crucial role in offsetting the democratic rights
and freedoms won after long struggles. This has been the case all along, when there
was a clash between the elites and trade unions, or other popular movements.
Walter Lippmann, the revered American journalist was explicit about it.
7.9 MASS MEDIA, CONFLICT AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
It is very clear that information is very powerful and can impact either positively
or negatively on public discourses. It can therefore shape what we hear or see
during conflicts. This is true because, the perspective of those who control or run
the affairs in the media shapes the news that is disseminated to the general public.
It could change the people’s view on issues about which they initially have little
interest. It could even incite people to violence. For example, Hitler used the media
to create an entire world view of hatred for the Jews, homosexuals and even some
minorities during his time.
It is very clear that most media professionals determine what their target audience
want to see and hear. In journalism, the common principle is generally known as
„when it bleeds it leads‰. In other words, violent conflicts make front page news
and not news that hangs on dialogue and understanding. The media seem to be
covering conflicts rather than dialogue, although they should be doing the latter.
By always covering conflicts, the media distorts the reality, which leads to the
erroneous belief among the general public that peace is pervasive and therefore
seen as abnormal.
7.9.1 Functions of the Media in Conflicts and Peace Building
The media plays an important role in our everyday life, although it could be
argued that this role could be constructive and sometimes destructive. For
example, the media could disseminate peaceful information and also counter hate-
speech, therefore creating a balance of opinion in a local environment, which is
called information equilibrium. On the other hand, it can incite the society to
violence just like in 2006 where a cartoonist in Denmark created a message about
Islam which caused international conflict.
The media, in some cases, finds it difficult to create a balance between countering
and preventing hate-speech which can be the private opinion of individuals. The
media should be seen as being truthful, fair and balanced in presenting accounts
of events or situations.
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace Promoter
In most cases, the privately owned media serves as a watchdog for the general
public. The perception is that the public media, controlled by the ruling elites,
could hide some true situations in order not to give the opposition a chance to
ridicule their policies, which could lead to losing support from the electorates.
In Sierra Leone, a video documentary exposed the incidence of sexual violence on
women during the civil war there. The film entitled Operation Fine Girl: Rape
Used as a Weapon of War in Sierra was produced by human rights activists with
support from the international non-governmental organisation „Witness‰. It
raised an international outcry and condemnation that led to an investigation for
this heinous crime against women in that country.
Media events can also be used to promote peace and negotiation, to solve
diplomatic deadlocks and to create a conducive environment whenever there are
conflicts among communities, regions and countries. For example, Studio Ijambo,
which had a team of 20 people consisting of Hutu and Tutsi journalists, was
engaged in producing about 100 radio programmes with the purpose of promoting
peace and to reconcile warring factions in the country.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the media plays a very crucial role in our
society. They do not only influence the public to support positive issues, but must
also recognise potential conflict and address it before the problem gets out of hand.
Although international media covering conflicts might have a different viewpoint,
the local media is a recognised part of society and expected to have the ability to
reduce fears. The media should be capable of defusing tension before conflict
escalates to a more critical point. Therefore the media should play the role of a
watchdog or the „fourth estate‰ or „fifth estate‰. When the media avoids hate
speech it helps the people to be at peace with one another in society, and to prevent
racial abuse, violence, and unnecessary bloodshed.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1.
How has the rise of Internet usage influenced political participation
of the electorate in Malaysia? What are the implications to
Malaysian politics? Discuss with examples.
Describe the role of the local media in resolving conflict in society.
Explain the role of the social media in achieving political consensus
in a democratic government.
Explain the role of media to defuse tension in the 1969 race riot in
Malaysia. Please avoid sentiment in answering this question.
2.
3.
4.
•
Propaganda is the spread of ideas, information or rumours for the purpose of
helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person. The primary purpose
of propaganda is to make the target audience believe, accept or approve of
something without looking closely at the evidence available.
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of a
service or product that is physical and specific. Advertisement praises goods.
Propaganda spreads ideas. Propaganda services only political purposes.
Types of political propaganda are bandwagon, name calling, endorsement,
glittering generalities, stacked cards, just plain folks, and fear.
Lasswell's propaganda theory combines both behaviourism and Freudianism
into a particularly pessimistic view of the media. Lasswell is of the view that
propaganda is not so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific
messages, but rather the result of the vulnerable state of mind of the average
person in that country.
Social media influence whatever issues politicians perceive as salient. Social
media is said to represent citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and
direct way. In contrast, traditional media constitutes a stable and well-known
information landscape for policy makers, and is sometimes perceived as being
of service to the elites who own it.
•
•
•
•
Communication
Conflicts
Election
Government
Internet
Mass media
Political communication
Political consensus
Political propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda theories
Social media
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