UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION THEORIES I.
INTRODUCTION.
As matured academic discipline, communication has a variety of theories. This unit introduces students to the general communication theories, which are the theories that describe the communication process as symbolic behaviour and involved specific elements.
PRE-TEST
Before you start reading, it is hope that you will try to answer the questions in the following pre-test;
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Understand early communication theory and its general aspects;
2. Understand symbol as an important element in communication theorising;
3. Understand communication as a performance that possesses special values of art;
4. Evaluate the general theories based on standards that have been discussed in Unit 1; and
5. Apply the general theories to behaviour.
State True (T) or False (F) for each of the following statements No. Statement Answer
1. Symbol and sign have the same meaning
2. Meanings are in people, not in words.
3. Symbolic Interactionism is a theory that focuses on the way that people interact through symbols.
4. Performance in communication is referred as an important way for people knowing about experiences, and also ways in which we define personal, social and cultural identities.
5. Narrative theory describes communication as storytelling.
6. Rules theory explains how humans construct meaning to communicate.
7. CMM is a rules theory that assume human as static.
8. Constructivist theory emphasis on individual cognitive complexity that influences individual perception and communication.
9. Interactional theory proposed by Palo Alto group distinguishes the content and relationship dimensions in communication.
10. Dialectical theory perceived a relationship as something that always in flux between change and stability.
11. According to uncertainty reduction theory, increase in uncertainty level cause decrease in nonverbal communication.
12. Social exchange theory is a group of theory that originally formulated by George Casper Homans.
UNIT DESCRIPTION.
General semantic theory is one of the early communication theories. Other theorists that related to this theory are I.A. Richards, C.K. Ogden, S.I Hayakawa and Alfred Korzybsk.
The goal of this group of theorist is to improve human communication by discovering the ways in which words, as a main symbol used during communication process can cause confusion and misunderstanding. By discovering the sources of misunderstanding we could develop ways to avoid
or correct them and thus improve communication.
Thus, general semantic theory focuses their primary ideas about language and symbols. It is said that symbols have special characters, namely:
(a) Symbols are arbitrary ?? decided by members of a community/culture
(b) Symbols are abstract ?? represent something (refer the ladder of
abstraction, Figure 4.2 pg. 78)
(c) Symbols are ambiguous ?? meanings are unclear and variable.
These qualities shaped the mystery, majesty and power of language, and at the same time these qualities explain the potential for confusion, misunderstanding and conflict (Refer pg. 76 ?? 78).
General semanticists claimed that the special character of symbols explains why people have different meanings for the same words. This lead to a still popular communication axiom: Meanings are in people, not in words. General semanticist believed, the key to understanding is context because meaning changes as symbols move from one context to another.
Context is a very broad concept that not only refers to more than specific sentences or communication situations, but also includes thoughts and feelings we have in situation, history between communicators, relationship in which communication occurs, and so forth. Basically, context is the entire field of experience that is related to communication.
As human has a different experience, we could decrease misunderstanding by working on our fields of experience. Korzybski used the concepts of intensional orientations and extensional orientations to explain the situation (Refer Table 4.1, pg. 81).
There are three ways to prevent misunderstanding, namely: Etc., indexing and feedforward.
Etc. is the concept that had been used by general semanticist to acknowledge that symbols are limited and incomplete; we can never say all there is to say about anything because language therefore partial representations of reality. Indexing refers to our need to understand the situations that change across
time.
Feedforward is the concept used by general semanticists that refer to feedback, the process of anticipating the effects of communication in order for us to prepare and plan our communication at all times. According to Richards, feedback is a method of taking into account the fields of experience of those whom we communicate and adapting our communication accordingly. In other words, to take the perspectives of others when communicate (Refer pg. 79 ?? 84).
Disadvantages and criticism on general semantics theory:
(a) Too simplistic
(b) Misrepresents the character of symbols and language ?? language not only reflects reality, language is also presentational.
(c) Lack of applied value for daily lives.
Theories about Symbolic Activity
Symbolic interactionism is a theory that explains symbols as the basis of individual identity and social life. Human symbolic activities explain the distinct character of human thinking, for individual identity, and for the persistence of society through the behaviours of individuals. George Herbert
Mead is a major figure of symbolic interaction theory.
Key concepts in symbolic interaction theory: Mind? defined as the ability to use symbols that have common social meanings. This ability is acquired when individual learn to use language and
concurrently they learn the social meanings attached to particular words based on its culture/society.
Self? defined as the ability to reflect on ourselves from the perspective of others. Our perceptions of how others see us are lenses through which we perceive ourselves. We learn to see ourselves in terms of the labels others apply to us (looking glass self). Sometimes the phenomenon of self fulfilling prophecy happened; in which individuals acting like others perceive ourselves.
I and Me? defined as the ability to be both the subjects and the objects of their experience, in which we can both act and observe ourselves in the process of acting. The I is creative, spontaneous, individuality, impulsive and immoral behaviour, but the Me is the socially conscious part of the self; namely analytical, evaluative and monitor what is done by the I. The I and the Me is complementary ?? the ME acted as filter to the I actions that might be anarchy and immoral, while the I is the source of personal creativity that set the ME as a unique and different from others.
Role taking defined as a process of internalising others perspectives and viewing experience from their perspectives (Me). Two groups that influences role taking are particular others (individuals who are close and significant to us, for e.g. family members, friends, romantic partners), and generalised other (other peoples in the social environment which is not important to us).
Summary? symbolic interactionism explains that individual create meaning throuh the following process:
(a) Individual act on the basis of what things mean to them, thus meanings are the basis of the communication behaviour.
(b) Meanings are formed in the process of interacting symbolically with others in a society, thus meaning carry social overtones.
(c) Meanings that individuals confer on experiences, feelings, events or activities, reflect the internalised perspectives of particular others and the generalised other that influences individual.
This is a guideline for individual behaviour in specific situations. According to Herbert Blumer, this is an individual interpretation of others perspectives. (Refer pg. 89 ?? 95)
Disadvantages or criticism of symbolic interaction theory:
(a) The theory has conceptual inconsistencies.
(b) The theory is too vague and broad.
(c) The theory neglect self-esteem. (Refer pg. 95 ?? 96).
Dramatism approach introduced by Kenneth Burke begins with the premise that life is a drama. BurkeÊs dramatistic theory has been called the most comprehensive of all theories of symbolic action. Burke sees life as a drama, which involves conflict and that threatens some of existing form of order. This conflict opens new possibilities for human to act.
Two central concepts in BurkeÊs theory are identification and guilt. Burke assumed individuals are substance (essence of a thing), but each person is a distinct substance. Because people are divided from one another, thus communication becomes the primary means by which we seek identification
or consubstantiality. Basically, although humans are different, communication is the primary way that we increase our identification.
Human communication is driven by the feeling of guilt that refers to any tension, discomfort, sense of shame or other unpleasant feelings that humans experience. Thus, we continually are attempting to clear guilt through communication. This feeling is uniquely human.
There are three ways in which symbolic abilities give rise to guilt in humans:
(a) Hierarchy (example: status and socioeconomic classes that create division among people in the community);
(b) Perfection (conflict between the desire to be perfect and actual achievement);
(c) The negative (the existence of negative concepts in the language will generate conflict between what should and should not). Two methods of ridding ourselves of guilt:
(a) Mortification ?? blaming ourselves
(b) Victimage ?? identify an external source to be blame for a wrongdoing (scapegoating) (Refer pg. 97 ??100).
The dramatistic Pentad (hexad) ?? a method used by Bruke to provides a structure of human actions. The pentad consists of six aspects to understanding and analysing human symbolic activity:
(a) Act ?? is what is done by a person (e.g. insult, caress)
(b) Scene ?? is the context in which interaction (the physical situation, the cultural setting, etc.)
(c) Agent ?? is the individual or group that performs an act
(d) Agency ?? refers to the means an agent uses to accomplish an act (e.g. storytelling, physical violence)
(e) Purpose ?? is the goal of the act (e.g. to gain forgiveness, to scapegoat another)
(f) Attitude ?? refer to how an actor position herself or himself relation to action (e.g. fairness, respectfulness). (Refer pg. 101 ??102).
Dramatistic analysis can help us understand why communication behaviour is made based on the motive is to purge the guilt (Refer Kennedy's example, pg. 102).
Disadvantages and criticism of BurkeÊs dramatism:
(a) The theory is obscure and confusing.
(b) Guilt is not the only motive of communication.
Narrative theory considers humans as storyteller and the narrative capacity is most unique and basic to humans. Walter Fisher is the major theorist of narrative theory. Fisher believed that humans make sense of their experiences in life by transforming them into stories or narrative forms. In addition, most of our communication takes a story-like form with plot, characters and consequences of action.
Fisher calling his theory the narrative paradigm. Narration defined as symbolic actions ?? words and/or deeds ?? that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create or interpret them. According to Fisher, narration is an ongoing human activity and natural processes by which we perceive the world and communicate with others (Refer pg. 105 ?? 107).
Two major concepts presented by Fisher in the narrative paradigm are good reasons and narrative rationality. Good reason is defined as making decision on the basis of good reasons; in Western cultures, rationality is consider extremely important and disregard other possibilities of explaining
something. The distinctions between rational world paradigm and the narrative paradigm can be seen in Table 5.1 (pg 107). The paradigm shift that Fisher advocated opens up new ways of thinking about communication, persuasion and belief. Narrative rationality referred to narrative capacity to convince and to gain our belief. Two criteria for assessing narrative rationality are coherence and fidelity.
Coherence means the consistency of a story in term of orderliness and meanings, while fidelity is defined as the extent to which a story resonates with listenersÊ personal experiences and beliefs in communication process.
Disadvantages and criticism of narrative theory:
(a) Incomplete description.
(b) Too broad.
(c) Conservative bias. (Refer pg. 111 - 114).
Theories about Performance.
Within the field of communication, performance is a broad concept that refers to an important way of both knowing and being. In other words, performances are a means to knowing about experiences, and they are also ways in which we define our personal, social and cultural identities. At the beginning, communication scholars use the concept of performance only to emphasise what is sometimes calledhigh art, for example, creative performance, drama, poetry declamation ceremony, etc. Currently, concept of performance includes everything that we do in our everyday life as it is also consist of dramatic structures and actions.
Performance studies includes a diversity of work, ranging from the study and performance of literature to the use of performances to achieve political impact which intended to criticise, challenge or change social systems and practices. Two performance studies that increasingly popular among communication scholars are dramaturgy and performance ethnography. Dramaturgy is particularly concerned with performances in everyday life, while performance ethnography focuses on how social communities are sustained and their values expressed and sometimes changed through performative practices such as rituals, ceremonies, rites of cultural practice and oral history. Other performance studies that communication scholar study is the power of performance to critique and reconfigure culturally inscribed identities and traditions that underlie social inequities. Dramaturgical theory (performance in everyday life) ?? developed by a sociologist, Erving Goffman through his book titled The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959).
The dramaturgical model is Goffman's most influential work in communication. This model likens ordinary social interaction to theatrical performance. Interaction is viewed as a stage and people are actors. The roles people take in interaction are performances strategically crafted to project
particular images to the audience.
Goffman also use concept of frames to define basic frame that we rely on for interaction. Frames of reference used by members of a society or culture in doing something. For example, social interactions of two generations in Malay society (Refer pg. 117 ?? 119).
Goffman's theory specially focused on impression management. This is referring to the process of managing setting, words, non-verbal communication, and etc., to create a particular image of one self or a situation. This might happen strategically or on purpose or maybe done unintentionally.
Goffman also distinguishes between front stage and back stage. The front stage is what is visible to an audience, something that we do strategically in order to achieve our aims, whereas the back stage includes all that is not visible to an audience; we can act in ways that might undermine their front
stage performances (Refer pg. 119 ?? 122).
Disadvantages and criticisms of Goffman's dramaturgical theory:
(a) Metaphor or reality?
(b) Too speculative
(c) An interest group, not a theory. (Refer pg. 122 ?? 124).
Performance ethnography is an approach to understand how symbolic behaviours actually perform cultural values and personal identities. At the same time, performances simultaneously reconstruct or reproduce the values and identities. For example, graffiti consist of symbols that reflect the values,
issues, and identities important in particular culture or social communities. Basic concepts in this approach are ethnography, direct, bodily experience, the hermeneutic circle, personal narrative and responsibility. Ethnography is a method of interpreting actions in a manner that generated understanding in the terms of those performing the actions.
For example, to understand Chinese ritual, we must understand the Chinese systems of meaning first. Ethnography places a greater emphasis on what is called thick description, that gives a fuller or in-depth explanation by working to understand the meaning of activities from the perspective of those engaged in them. Ethnography is a collaboration, the ethnographer and the people being studied work together to generate knowledge (Refer pg. 124 ?? 125).
Direct, bodily experience is a concept that explains on how to perform ethnographic research, in which an ethnographer should engage in participant-observation. By being not only an observer but also active participant in a culture in order to gain understandings in much the same way that members of indigenous groups do ?? through direct experience is a main technique of ethnography (Refer pg. 125 ?? 126).
The hermeneutic circle (Refer figure 6.1, pg. 127) ?? is a process that gone through by the ethnographer to understand in detail about community experience through the movement between near-experience meaning (those that have significance to members of a particular culture or social community) and distance-experience meaning (those that have meaning to people outside of that particular culture or social community).
Personal narrative is oral histories or stories about individual or community experience. Performance ethnography emphasises the personal stories as testimony, which consists of statements based on individual or community experience. Personal narrative is not only about what we have experienced,
but it is also the interpretation of what was experienced by the individual (Refer pg. 127 ?? 129).
Responsibility is one important aspect of performance ethnography as the teller must responsible to his/her narrative. Usually, in storytelling both the tellers and the listeners are affected in which they should be responsible and accept the responsibility as they have the potential to enter the other person's life and be changed in the storytelling process (Refer pg. 129 ?? 130).
Among the major scholars of performance ethnography are Dwight Conquergood, Clifford Geertz, Harold Garfinkel, dan Arthur Frank. Disadvantages and criticisms of performance ethnography:
(a) Tension between ethnography and representation of others.
(b) Misuse of ethnography. (Refer pg.131 ?? 132).
Political performances emphasise on how performers and performance interact with audiences, communities and cultures to name, contest and sometimes alter social processes, practices and relations. Performance scholars believed that performance through various mediums can bring certain changes in society whether from the perspective of belief, value, practice or behaviour.
Key concept for political performance is performavity. It refers to the performance and that which is performed to strengthen the norms or social conventions in society. Something in society could only be strong if we perform or do it continuously (Refer pg. 132 ?? 134).
Performance is considered adequate to bring changes as the performance offered the cultural and political critique towards existing social meaning in the community. For example, a poetry that questions the objective of war (Refer pg. 134 ?? 136).
Disadvantages and criticisms of political performance:
(a) Lacks a coherent theoretical foundation.
(b) Misuse of art. (Refer pg. 136 ?? 138).
This unit will explain how people constructing meaning based on two theories, namely, rule theory or the coordinated management of meaning? (CMM) and constructivism theory. Rules theory or the coordinated management of meaning (CMM) explain how we use communication rules to coordinate meanings in interaction with others. This theory owes an intellectual debt to symbolic interactionism,
whose fundamental assumption it shares and uses to develop its own claims. CMM is an interpretive theory that assumes human communication is rule guided and rule following.
Key concepts in CMM are hierarchy of meanings, rules and logical force. Hierarchy of meanings refer to the set of meanings that we rely on to interpret experiences. This hierarchy consists of multiple levels of meaning, and each level is contextualized by higher levels in the hierarchy till the lower level (refer Figure 7.1, pg. 146). The lowest level is the content, namely what is said; second, speech act; third, episode; forth, relationship; fifth, autobiographies; and sixth, cultural patterns (the higher level of meaning). CMM theory suggested that to understand a communication interaction, an
individual should coordinate the meaning given to the behaviour by applying the hierarchy of meanings (Refer pg. 141 ?? 145).
To help this coordination, we have to depend on rules. Rules referred to the social patterns that we follow and learn throughout our social lives and culture (for example, ethics and morality). There are two kinds of rules: constitutive rules and regulative rules.
Constitutive rules tell us what certain actions constitute or mean. For example, how to define promise action? What are the elements required when individual making the promise?
Regulative rules tell us when it is appropriate to do certain things and what we should do next in an interaction. For instance, during a lecture, students should raise oneÊs hand when they want to ask question or tell something. Logical force refers to the degree to which we feel we must act or cannot act in particular way and which hierarchy of meanings that become our basis of meaning. There are four sources of logical force:
(a) Prior actions
(b) Desires outcomes
(c) Situational demands
(d) Feel impelled
For example, we do something because of promises that we have mada (prior action), or we need something in return (desired outcomes), or the situation that forced us to act that way (situational demands), or we have no option (feel impelled) (Refer pg. 147 ?? 149).
Another thing discussed in CMM is strange loop. It means internal conversation by means of which individuals become trapped in destructive patterns of thinking (Refer pg. 149 ?? 150).
Disadvantages and criticisms of CMM theory:
(a) Unclear meaning of rule
(b) Too ambiguous
(c) Too broad in scope (Refer pg. 150 ??151).
Constructivism is basically influenced by symbolic interactionism, besides the personal construct theory, proposed by psychologist George Kelly. Constructivist theorists attempt to explain how we go about interpreting or constructing meanings of something by focusing on human cognitive system
and process (Refer pg. 152 ?? 159).
Major scholars associated with constructivist theory are Jesse Delia, Ruth Ann Clark, Daniel O Keefe, Barbara O Keefe and several scholars from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, in the United States.
The primary concepts for this theory are cognitive schemata, cognitive complexity and person-centredness.
Cognitive schemata are concept established from the personal construct theory, formulated by George Kelly. According to Kelly, personal constructs are the building blocks of individuals interpretations of experience. This is what constructivist theorists called as cognitive schemata. In other words,
cognitive schemata are information structures in long-term memory as experiences that assist the individual to interpret experience. For instance, we have experienced the pain of poured hot water at age 12 years. This experience will be stored permanently in our memory as a guideline when
using hot water for the next (Refer pg. 153). There are four types of schemata: prototypes, personal construct stereotypes and scripts.
(a) Prototype is the broadest cognitive structures, ideal or optimal examples of categories of people, situations, objects and so forth. For example? best friends, loving mothers and great teachers. Your prototype of best friends might be someone that very good and close with you now, named Yunus; loving mothers is your own mother; and great teachers is your mathematical teacher you ever had when you form 5, which named Mrs Jega. We always use prototypes to interpret others who fit into
particular categories (Refer pg. 153).
(b) Personal construct is the second-broadest knowledge structures, are building blocks that Kelly originally identified. Constructivist theorists also focus on the concept in works and researchÊs. Personal construct is a mental yardstick that allows us to measure a phenomenon on a particular dimension. Personal constructs are bipolar, or opposite and scales of judgment (used in judging and evaluating phenomenon). For example, intelligent-unintelligent, attractive-unattractive, and kindunkind (Refer pg. 153 ?? 154).
(c) Stereotypes are predictive generalisation; we make predictions about how person will behave. For example, because we have defined rich peoples as an arrogant, we predict a rich Fatimah as an arrogant and expect she would not mingle around with poor peoples (Refer pg. 154). The accuracy based on stereotypes is always questionable.
(d) The final cognitive schema is scripts. Scripts define how particular kinds of interactions are supposed to proceed ?? what happens, what come first, second, and so forth (Refer pg. 154). Scripts are guides to action, much like the episodes that we read about in CMM theory. A script refers to
routine or action sequence that we have in mind about a particular interaction. For instance, you have script on how to ask your lecture about subject that you are not understand. Or you have a script that
defines what kind of suitable behaviour on the first day of Syawal.
Cognitive complexity is a second important concept in constructivism. Constructivists believed that individual vary in the complexity or sophistication of their interpretive processes. Cognitive complexity refers to how complex a person's interpretive processes are along the three dimensions
of differentiations, abstraction and organisation.
Differentiation is dimension of cognitive complexity that measured by the number of personal construct an individual uses to perceive and describe others. Based on constructivist theory, more cognitively complex individual use more constructs to interpret other than do less cognitively complex individuals. Think how many different nouns and verbs that can be used to describe your beloved mother - for example, kind, beautiful, clever, happy, decent, energetic, motivated, religious, competent, etc. If below than 30, means the cognitive complexity is average (Refer pg. 155 ?? 156).
Abstraction refers to the extent to which a person interprets others in terms of internal motives, personality traits and character. This means, did you interpret people based on the surface only or you have the ability to base interpretations on mental or psychological qualities. Look back on how you
tell about your mother previously ?? is it based on physical appearance only or covers its internal characters? The more internal characters you have identified, the more abstract your cognitive complexity (Refer pg. 156).
Organisation is the final facet or dimension of cognitive complexity. This dimension refers to the degree to which a person notices and is able to make sense of contradictory behaviours. For example, Ahmad is very active in class but not in co-curriculum. A cognitively and more complex individual will interpret Ahmad as more interested and confident in academic skill compared to social situation as he is quiet and bashful person. If you are person who is not very complex cognitively, you might interpret Ahmad as interested in his study, but not interested in social activities (Refer pg. 156 ?? 157).
Most constructivistsÊ research about the dimensions of cognitive complexity showed positive correlation between abstractness and organisation. As such, they believed that all three dimensions are correlated, and measuring all three is redundant and unnecessary to determine the cognitive complexity of individuals.
Person-centeredness is another important concept in constructivism. According to constructivists, cognitively complex people are more capable of engaging in sensitive communication that is tailored to particular others. In other words, an individual have person-centeredness, in which the interpretation such people make might allow them to adapt their communication to others particular
styles, needs, tendencies and so forth. Consequently, they would be more persuasive and effective in interactions compared to an individual who is not cognitively complex (Refer pg. 157 ?? 158).
Disadvantages or criticism of constructivist theory:
(a) Internal validity is questionable
(b) Pragmatic utility is weak
(c) Theoretical scope neglects communication (Refer pg. 158 ?? 159).
Theories about Interpersonal Dynamics Theories discuss in this chapter focus specifically and directly on the process of communication dynamics and its affect. Two theories that concentrate on
this topic are interactional theory and dialectical theory (Refer pg. 161 ?? 183).
Interactional theory is originally formulated by three clinical psychologists working at Mental Health Institute in Palo Alto, California ?? Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin and Don Jackson. The theory also called as pragmatic theory about communication or Palo Alto's group theory. Its original theory most
focused on how interaction occurred in family and why family is problem. However, from time to time the theory is developed in other contexts. A broad interactional theory try to explain the process occur in interactional communication and how are patterns of communication formed in interaction
affect. Four central concepts in interactional theory are communication system, levels of meaning, punctuation and power.
System refers to how the interactionists view communication as a process that must consider the contexts are interdependent and interrelated. They believed that any useful insight into communication must consider the contexts in which it occurs as the contexts affect communication and what it means. This assumption originated from general systems theory which formulated by a
Viennese professor of biology named Ludwig von Bertalanffy. The Palo Alto group used von Bertalanffy's ideas as the foundation of their interactional theory of communication. The systems view communication on four propositions:
(a) All parts are interrelated
(b) Systems are organised wholes
(c) The whole is more than the sum of its parts
(d) Systems strive for, but never achieve, equilibrium (Refer pg. 162 ?? 166).
Levels of meaning refer to two levels of meaning that included in all of communication ?? the content meaning and relationship meaning. The Palo Alto group famous with the communication axiom that one cannot communicate. This means we are still communicating although we are not talk. Why this happened? According to Palo Alto group, there are two levels of meaning, first, we can find the meaning from the content of what is said (content meaning), and second, how something is communicated or not communicated (relationship meaning). This idea was originated by famous anthropologist, named Gregory Bateson.
Relationship level meanings may be expressed verbally and/or non-verbally. Also called as metacommunication or communication about communication. This is parallel with the systems perspective that analyses communication based on the contexts in which it occurs (Refer pg. 167 ?? 168).
Look at the conversation below as an example:
Fatimah: Milah, please take me a coffee (in a firm tone).
Milah: Yes, madam (in a soft tone).
From a content perspective, the meaning is clear. But, in term of relationship, obviously Fatimah is giving order to Milah to do something for her, and Milah obeyed the order without question. We can interpret this as Milah is Fatimah's maid.
Look at the following conversation:
Fatimah: Please take me a cup of coffee (in a friendly and soft tone).
Osman: Okay, Cik Timah sweetheart (in a friendly and joke tone).
Its content is clear. From the relationship perspective it can be interpreted that Fatimah and Osman is a loving couple and helps each other as Fatimah was asking something from Osman, and Osman replied positively to the request. Punctuation is a concept used by Palo Alto group to define where sentences begin and end. Communication tends to go smoothly as long as all parties
agree on punctuation or interaction start and stop (CMM theorists refer this as a coordinated management of meanings). But if the partners differ in how they punctuate communication, misunderstanding and conflict may arise (Refer to the example at pg. 168 ?? 169).
Power in the interactional theory of Palo Alto group is a concept that refers to the power relationship reflects on communicators through the communication establishes. The concept is parallel with the systems perspective that views communication as interdependent. For example, power relationship between Fatimah and Milah. The pattern of communication between Fatimah and Milah is complimentary as the levels of power between them are different. But the pattern of communication between Fatimah and Osman is symmetrical, reflects equal power in relationship. Rogers have identified a third kind of power namely parallel relationships that refer to power as equal overall but
distributed so that each individual has primary authority or control in certain realms. For example, Fatimah has primary control in household affairs, and Osman handles family finance (Refer pg. 169 ?? 171).
Interactional theory offers an original perspective on communication and it's role in sustaining patterns in relationships. The theory provide a unique perspective about communication interaction by focusing on communication as a system that has two levels of meaning and interpreted based on contexts and power relationships.
Disadvantages and criticism of interactional theory:
(a) Theory is not testable.
(b) Theory over emphasises power between communicators.
(c) Theory ignores intent. (Refer pg. 171 ?? 172).
According to many scholars of communication, dialectical theory is the most exciting theory to emerge in recent years. Dialectical means the existence of contradictory or opposing tensions at the same time. For example, hate mingled with love toward someone.
Dialectical theory asserts that in any relationships there are inherent tensions between contradictory impulses. Thus, human will respond to dialectics accordingly. Dialectical tensions and how we respond to them are central dynamics that shed light on how they evolve and change over time.
Dialectical theory describes about this (Refer pg. 172 ?? 173).
Major scholars that lead the theory and research about dialectical relationships are Leslie Baxter, William Rawlins, Barbara Montgomery, Kathryn Dindia and Dan Canary. Dialectics in relationships is normal and common. The main focuses of dialectical theorists are the tensions resulted from the situation and how they respond to it.
The meaning and interpretation of dialectics adopted by Bakter is different with Marx or Hegel (oppositions that could ultimately be resolved into some final form). What is meant by dialectics from Bakter's perspective is similar with Bakhtin's beliefs, a well-known Russian philosopher. Based on Bakhtin,
Baxter belief that tensions between contradictory impulses are continuous and have no ultimate resolution or end point. ItÊs just temporary periods of equilibrium between opposing dialectics in the larger pattern of continuous change that marks relationships. When this happened, the relationships
experienced dialectical moments.
For dialectical theorists, change is the one constant of relationships? they are always in flux and evolving and stability is part of ongoing change (Refer pg. 173 ?? 174).
The root ideas underlying the concept of dialectics are contradiction and process. Contradiction refers to conflict, opposition, contrast or discrepancy between two things, such as the desire for intimacy and the desire for distance. The contradictions of two incongruous impulses are productively
interdependent: you need to be close is fuelled by times when you are separate from your friend, being intimate for a period kindles your desire for time alone. According to Bakthin, the tensions between people promote communication, which allows partner to grow individually and together.
Based on this perspective, contradiction makes we value the moments that experienced. For instance, the distance gains its meaning from the opposite notion of intimacy, or we value novelty because it stands apart from standard routines. Obviously, contradiction is feelings or moments that interdependent and need each other for their meaning and value (Refer pg. 174).
Process refers to dialectics that are on-going, always in motion, forever changing in relationships. Based on the theory, change should be desired and celebrated. Relationships are not statistic and change dynamically. The tension between contradictory impulses is positive and productive in moving relationships forward. For instance, discomfort about conflicting will lead to
discussion so that a relationship is moving (Refer pg. 174 ?? 175).
Relational dialectics has both an internal form and an external form. Internal form concerns tensions within a relationship and external form is tensions between relationship and outside systems such as society, family, work and friends. Relational dialectics that have been identified by researchers are
integration/separation, stability/change and expression/privacy. Please refer Table 8.1 pg. 176 that explained internal and external forms of relational dialectics. Responses to dialectics are how we respond and deals with dialectical tensions. Baxter discovered four basic ways that people respond to relational dialectics:
(a) Selection, which is satisfying one need and ignoring or denying the contradictory one (example, A and B give up all of their independent interests and activities and spend all free time with each other);
(b) Separation, is most frequently used response in relational dialectics, attempts to meet both contradictory needs by satisfying each one in separate situations (example, A plays sport in the evening, and B goes for shopping on Sunday morning);
(c) Neutralisation, which is a compromise that meets both needs somewhat but neither need fully. In other words, they each should sacrifice their respective benefits (example, A and B does not eat their favourite foods when they go out together as their favourite is different); and
(d) Reframing, is the most difficult and sophisticated response to dialectics. They reframed the autonomy/connection dialectic so that it was not experienced as a contradiction (example, couple marked certain subjects as closed to discussion based on agreement to respect privacy, although
honesty is important in relationships) (Refer pg. 178 ?? 180).
Disadvantages and criticism of dialectical theory are less discussed by scholars. Maybe this dialectical theory relatively new approach and scholars have not yet had time to render critical judgments. For the time being, dialectical theory is testable, easy to understand; strong practical value and heuristic value (Refer pg. 180 ?? 182).
THEORIES ABOUT RELATIONSHIPS.
There are three most influential theories of communication and evolution of relationships. The theories are uncertainty reduction theory, social exchange theory and developmental theory (first generation and second generation). Uncertainty reduction theory describes about uncertainty experienced by an individual when first meet, so it is important to reduce uncertainty if the
relationship is to progress. The theory attempt to explain how uncertainty affects communication in relationships. Uncertainty motivates certain patterns of communication and the increase and decrease in uncertainty influences the development of interpersonal relationship.
Major scholars for uncertainty reduction theory are Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese, John Bradac, and K. Kellerman (Refer pg. 185).
Uncertainty reduction theory is a laws approach (covering law), in which it's assume that humans respond in predictable ways to external stimuli. In other words, human behaviour is regulated by laws. Thus, this theory proposed laws of behaviour in relationships (Refer pg. 185).
Theories based on covering laws begin with axioms, a statement that is presumed to be true on its face and therefore does not require proof or explanation. Examples of axioms are life is valuable, or the earth revolves around the sun. Uncertainty reduction theory proposes several axioms about
human behaviour in relationships (Refer Figure 9.1 pg. 187).
Uncertainty reduction theory does not apply to the context of interpersonal communication only; it has been extended to explain the aspect of reducing uncertainty in the context of intercultural communication by William Gudykunst and Young Yun Kim (Refer pg. 187 ?? 189).
Disadvantages and criticisms of uncertainty reduction theory:
(a) Narrow in scope
(b) Invalid (Refer pg. 189 ?? 191).
Social exchange theory is an approach that attempt to apply economic principles to interpersonal relationships. The social exchange theorists believed that people seek to maximise rewards and minimise costs in relationships. Thus, people conduct cost-benefit analysis to make sure they are
getting enough out of a relationship given what they are investing in. In other words, we communicate and build relationships to gain rewards, and we stay with relationships that are more rewarding than costly.
In fact, this is not a theory, but rather there is a group of related exchange theories that grow out of basic propositions originally formulated by George Casper Homans, and elaborated by others, including Peter Blau, John Thibaut, Harold Kelley, Michael Roloff, Caryl Rusbult and Bram Buunk (Refer pg. 191 ?? 192).
Social exchange theory emphasises on the value of relationships based on rewards and costs. The main assumption here is individual make an analysis regarding relationships to maximise profit. We will evaluate what is the net outcome result from a relationship through calculations of rewards and costs. Rewards are things that have positive value to an individual in relationship, such as acceptance, loyalty, and supports. We also find it rewarding to have a relationship with a person who enhances our social status.
Costs are whatever has negative value for an individual, for instance, relationships cost us time, money, and effort. Costs also include forgone opportunities that we need to give up by being in a relationship. The net outcome of a relationship is determined by subtracting costs from rewards:
Net outcome (O) = Rewards (R) ?? Costs (C). Positives net outcomes result if relationships provide more rewards than costs, and negative net outcomes result if relationships are most costly than rewarding. However, the net value of a relationship is positive or negative does not explain why an individual choose to continue or end the relationships (Refer pg. 192).
According to exchange theory, there are two standards against which we compare our relationships. This covers comparison level (CL) and comparison level of alternatives (CLalt). CL is a subjective standard for what we expect in a particular type of relationship. ItÊs based on a personÊs past and current relationships as well as the personÊs observations of other relationships and general knowledge derived from other sources. Clalt is a relative measure that we use to evaluate how good a particular relationship is in comparison to real or perceived alternatives to that relationship (Refer pg. 193 - 195).
Equity or inequity is concerned with whether a relationship is fair or not. Usually, people are happy when they feel they are getting a fair shake, and vice versa (Refer pg. 195 - 196).
Summary of social exchange theory:
(a) Individuals are rational and calculate the rewards and costs of relationships.
(b) Individuals operate to maximise rewards, minimise costs, and optimise outcomes in relationships.
(c) Satisfaction with relationships is based on individuals CL s.
(d) Relational stability is based on individuals CLalts.
(e) Equity is preferable compared to inequity. (Refer pg. 196). Disadvantages and criticism of social exchange theory:
(a) Little heuristic value.
(b) Not testable.
(c) Inappropriate for humans.
(d) Not supported by research. (Refer pg. 197 - 200).
Development theories are approach that explains how relationships develop and evolve. The developmental view points includes more than one theory, which is there are theories describes the processes occurred in the development of relationships whether interpersonal, group, etc.
This chapter focuses on developmental theories that associated with interpersonal relationships. The theories can be classified into two distinct eras of developmental theorising namely first generation developmental theories and second generation developmental theories.
First-generation developmental theories emerged in the 1970s, one of the bestknown models is social penetration model, was developed by Irwin Altman and Dallas Taylor. By using metaphorically described human as onions, Altman and Taylor explains how relationships develop through the
penetration of the outside layers (general knowledge), middle layers (views and attitudes), until they reach the interior layers (beliefs and hopes), and finally the inner core of self-concept - see Figure 9.2, pg. 201.
Altman and Taylor have amended the original model erred in portraying relationships as following an uninterrupted path. Influenced by dialectical theory, Altman and Taylor acknowledged that the developmental course of relationships involves a continuous tension between desires for greater
openness and intimacy and desires for independence and closedness.
During the mid and late 1980s and into the 1990's, another developmental relationship models have emerged. There are no more linear models, but more complexes and with the form of spiral. Moreover, these theories begin to focus on people involved in the relationships, and not only about particular events that occurred between them in relationships (Refer pg. 200 - 202).
The second generation developmental theories were launched by James Honeycutt in 1993. Honeycutt proposed that movement in relationships is defined by individuals perceptions. Behaviours and external events don't affect relationships unless individuals assign them meanings that have
relational consequences.
In this case, individuals use their past knowledge and experiences to interpret whether the relationships should be continued or not. Honeycutt believed that individuals have its own relationship trajectories (example Figure 9.3 pg. 203) and Figure 9.4 pg. 205), which are personal understanding of various tracks in relationships.
The trajectories were a kind of schema, a concept that suggested by constructivists theory. Individuals also have turning points used to define the direction or intensity of a relationship (Refer pg. 202 ?? 206).
Disadvantages and criticism of development theories (particularly the first generation):
(a) Too equal
(b) Theories or perspectives? (Refer pg. 206 - 207).
TUTORIAL 2.1
You are required to discussed activities included in all three chapters of Unit 2
at the section titled. Try it out? pg. 79, 84, 87, 88, 95, 100, 101, 111, 119,122, 129,
145, 147, 150, 155, 166, 168, 179, 197 and 204.
TUTORIAL 2.2
You are also required to explain meaning of each key term at the end of every chapters of this Unit which listed as Key Terms? pg. 88, 115, 139, 160, 183 and 208.
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain what is meant by theories about symbolic activity.
2. Explain the model of semantic triangle.
3. Compare rationality paradigm and narrative paradigm.
4. Explain five aspects in the dramatistic pentad (hexad).
5. Discuss Goffman's dramaturgy model based on your own experience.
6. Explain what is meant by the coordinated management of meaning.
7. Explain the concept of cognitive complexity based on constructivism approach.
8. Explain the concept of system in Palo Alto group's interactional theory.
9. Give explanation about relational dialectics and the responses used to manage them.
10. Do you agree with the seven axioms of uncertainty reduction theory? Why?
11. Is it relevant if we apply the economic principles to human relationship as suggested by social exchange theory?
12. Compare the first generation developmental theories with second generation developmental theories. Which one is more useful to you?
