Topic 8 Media and Politics: The Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Discuss the relationship between media ownership, gatekeeping
and political affiliation;
Explain the editorial functions of the media and media censorship;
Elaborate on the politics of advertisement and the media;
Outline the nature and elements of political journalism;
Explain the significance of the editorial and editorial pages; and
Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.
INTRODUCTION
Media and politics is a system where political information and roles are supported
through the mass media. Media tends to be the medium that disseminates
information on political affairs to enable the public to be involved in political and
national life. People rely on the media to keep up with politics and understand the
behaviour of political leaders.
8.1 THE MEDIA AND GATEKEEPERS
A media gatekeeper is a person in the media who decides what is worthy of being
seen by the people. Another way to think about it is that a gatekeeper is the person
who tells the writers what to write about. So, the gatekeeper’s responsibility is to
ensure that news broadcast is in consonance with the policies of the media owner
and state, and does not violate any rules, laws, ethics and norms of society.
A gatekeeper is responsible for determining the presentation of news in the media
which in turn determines the agenda presented to the audience. The media
gatekeeper in Malaysia is always sensitive to the government's needs, whereby
news is filtered and adjusted to portray government policies. Yang and Md. Sidin
(2014) claim that ownership has an impact on media gatekeeping decisions. They
found that political considerations were the primary external factor influencing
the gatekeeping of the newspapers.
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation
Capital interest has determined the direction of media growth since the 20th
century. Media owners are often businessmen who become owners of capital and
then found or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
The ownership of media organisations is very closely linked to domination of
political, economic and cultural flows. Media owners use their media entities to
achieve their own political purposes. Across developing countries, most major
media such as radio stations, television and newspapers are owned by the
government or the ruling party.
Malaysia’s mainstream newspapers are largely owned by the government or
businessmen and public figures in close relationship with the coalition parties of
the government. Although the news media is the main avenue of communication
between a government and its people, the Malaysian government appears to be
adopting a „government knows best‰ stance when it comes to the mainstream
media. One possible reason is that since Malaysia is a developing nation, the
government has to control the mainstream media to ensure that the media does
not side track and compromise national development and national security
(Anuar, 2007).
Smeltzer (2008) states that most of the media in Malaysia may, in fact, directly or
indirectly be owned by members of the ruling party or enjoy the political support
of the economic elites (refer to Table 8.1). The Malaysian media are largely owned
and indirectly controlled by 14 political parties that form the ruling Barisan and
also the other main opposition parties (Kenyon & Marjoribanks, 2007).
Media policies in Malaysia are also under the control of the state government
and the traditional media are said to be government friendly, and allow the
government to have certain degree of control on the media coverage.
Table 8.1: Ownership of Media in Malaysia
Ownership
UMNO
Company
Media Prima Berhad
Media
TV3, TV9, TV8, NTV7, HOT.FM, Fly.FM,
New Straits Times Press, Berita Harian,
Harian Metro
Utusan Malaysia, Utusan
KOSMO, Utusan Karya
The Star, Red 104.FM, Suria.FM
Harakah Daily
Rocket
Melayu,
Utusan Melayu (M) Berhad
MCA
PAS
DAP
Star Publications Berhad
Harakah
The Rocket
8.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE EDITORIAL
The editorial is a newspaper's official outlook on specific issues, including political
issues, and often appears in an official statement called an editorial. Editorials have
to be public watchdogs, to educate and to inform the public. According to Duyile
(2005), an editorial is the opinion of the newspaper simply written for the
understanding of readers, leading them to make decisions on the issues being
discussed. They will choose what will be reported and highlighted to the public.
Some of the common goals of editorials are to inform, educate, and entertain issues
broadcasted with reasons and facts for or against something. Journalists today
typically strive to maintain objectivity presenting a story without bias but
readers can still choose from among many different media outlets. There are often
distinct differences in the ways different newspapers, television news channels,
and radio networks present news about the same issues.
The editorial is a critical element in positioning the newspaper as a mediator
between the people and the many contending forces in contemporary society. The
editorial is an opinion and attitude of the media as a publishing institution towards
a particular issue or controversy that arises in the community. Opinions written
by the editors are assumed to represent the editorial opinions and attitudes of the
media.
Editorials in Malaysia may appear in forms like editorial cartoons or editorial
columns in the newspapers mainly for the purpose of agenda setting and framing.
Editorial cartoons, which are also known as political cartoons, are used to express
views on political issues and regarded as a reflection of freedom of speech.
Editorial cartoons have been published in Malaysian newspapers, such as Utusan
Melayu, Warta Melayu, Majlis and Lembaga since the 1930s. Some of the more
prolific cartoonists at that time include Abu Bakar bin Mohd, Nor Amir Hamzah
bin Mir Baru, Abd. Manan Ali Samad and Mohammad Nor Khalid or more
popularly known as Lat (Mahamood, 2004).
Presenting oneÊs ideas freely, even through editorial cartoons, may be risky.
Nonetheless, Mohammad Nor Khalid is the only Malaysian cartoonist who has
produced editorial cartoons depicting well-known political figures, including
Tun Dr Mahathir, and yet his caricatures are well accepted and appreciated
(Mahamood, 2004; Ujang, 2009).
8.3 CENSORSHIP
Censorship is a global phenomenon. Censorship involves reviewing something
and then choosing to remove or hide parts of it that are considered unacceptable.
Censorship is often used by a group which wants to control information for
personal gain, or to prevent other people from accessing information that should
be available. Censorship is a process or idea of keeping things like obscene words
or graphic images from an audience.
There is also such a thing as self-censorship, which is when one refrains from
saying certain things or possibly rewords them depending on who is listening.
Self-censorship is an act which is done to prevent annoyance and avoid
punishment from powerful players, such as the government, major advertisers or
corporations owning the news organisations, where there is no outside power to
tell them to censor their work.
Media censorship takes many forms in the way news is delivered. While news
stories are often edited for length, there are many choices that are made that are
designed to keep some information from becoming public. Sometimes these
decisions are made to safeguard a person's privacy, while at other times, the aim
is to protect media outlets from corporate or political fallout.
There are also different types of censorship. One of the most common criteria
behind censorship is the age limit for viewing different media. Sometimes
censorship can be carried out in the form of a blanket ban on a certain taboo topic.
A taboo topic would be defined according to the governing authority in the
country.
8.3.1 Political Censorship
Political censorship exists when a government attempts to conceal, fake, distort
or falsify information that its citizens receive, by suppressing or crowding out
political news in the news outlets. The government often possesses the power of
the army and the secret police, to enforce the compliance of journalists with the
will of the authorities to spread the story that the ruling authorities want people to
believe.
Violent speeches and derogatory comments about a particular race and religion
should be censored as they can only incite anger among the masses against the
said person or the organisation he/she is associated with. Such media tactics are
often used by political parties for selfish means while ignoring the greater good of
the society. This can only bring unrest among the masses and disrupt the peace
in the society. Censorship will prevent the public display of disrespect to any
particular individual or community and promote political correctness.
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia
Malaysia has some of the toughest censorship laws in the world. However, the
growth of the Internet has allowed some media activists to express their thoughts
without any limitations. Political content is not the only content that is censored.
There are is social, religious and moral censorship in Malaysia. Some newspapers
are restricted in their print versions and challenge government domination online
as the Internet provides much more freedom.
In Malaysia, censorship and self-censorship are imposed by the government. Self-
censorship is the exercising of control over what one says and does especially to
avoid criticism or severe reprimand. As shown in Figure 8.1, there are two types
of self-censorship in Malaysia: salient censorship and proscribed censorship (Loo,
2013).
Figure 8.1: Types of self-censorship in Malaysia
Source: Loo (2013)
Malaysian journalists are duty bound to essentially report on „safe‰ issues to
avoid inciting racial strife or propagating salacious promiscuity. According to
Communications and Multimedia Minister, Datuk Seri Dr Salleh Said Keruak, self-
censorship is important to ensure that the information received is valid and not
detrimental or disruptive to harmony in society and country (Malay Mail Online,
2015).
For many Malaysian journalists, the real threat does not come so much from
professional sanctions but a learned cautiousness against sackings, unannounced
arrests for any „mishandling‰ of information, or in some cases, expensive
defamation actions. Therefore, Malaysian newspapers generally offer a daily
diet of general business news and light social features. Fundamental issues of
environmental degradation, poverty, public corruption, public health, public
accountability or migrant labour are largely ignored (Loo, 2005).
8.4 POLITICS OF ADVERTISEMENT AND THE MEDIA
Bolland (1989) defines advertising as the „paid placement of organisational
messages in the media‰. Political advertising therefore, refers to the purchase and
use of advertising space, paid for at commercial rates, in order to transmit political
messages to a mass audience. The media used for this purpose may include
cinema, billboards, the press, radio, television and the Internet.
Advances in media have streamlined the processes of campaigning, giving
politicians and candidates the comfort and options of reaching out to larger
numbers of people and constituents with very little effort.
Apart from disseminating information, political advertisements are also designed
to persuade. The fundamental platform of political communication from
campaigns to voters, even in this changing world, is advertisement. In 1988,
George Bush and Michael Dukakis spent between them some $85 million on
television advertising. During the 1992 presidential campaign, George BushÊs
team spent upwards of $60 million on television advertising alone. Dwight D.
Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson also successfully utilised the
media for their political advertising campaigns.
In certain countries, political organisations may or may not be regulated by a
regulatory agency. For example, in Australia, the Australian Communications
Media Authority (ACMA) regulates the political advertisement in their country
and is responsible for the regulation of political and election matters in the
broadcast media, under the Broadcasting Services Act.
In Britain, although regulatory and stylistic conventions differ from those of the
US, political advertising is central to political communication. Today, of course,
television has been joined by the Internet as a platform for advertising of all kinds,
including political.
The role of political advertisement is great because it replaces the information that
cannot be delivered through news reports. In Malaysia, political advertising has
been practised since the 1960s. Political advertising in Malaysia is more prevalent
during elections in order to raise awareness or encourage a change in voters'
behaviour or perceptions. During general elections, the government expects
Malaysia's mainstream media not only to publicise but also to flaunt the Barisan
Nasional's achievements, particularly in the area of socio-economic development.
Based on Nielsen (2011) Advertising Information Services, Barisan Nasional had
spent RM9.8 million on advertisement in February 2008, which marked the
beginning of the election period. Meanwhile, Transparency International Malaysia
(TI-M) estimated that Barisan Nasional spent 7.68 per cent of its budget of RM94.5
million on print ads. The NST and The Star were utilised for the purpose of
campaigning for the Barisan Nasional party (Grewal, 2015).
Advertising campaigns are capable of influencing public opinion. The 2008 general
election showed how political campaigns by political parties became more intense
and creative through advertising. Government and opposition parties compete to
optimise the power of advertising to garner votes for their respective parties. The
government utilises media advertisements to remind Malaysians to „decide wisely
and vote‰ for candidates and parties that deserve to win the election.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss media censorship in the context of Malaysia. Give examples.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1.
2.
3.
What do you understand by media ownership, gatekeeping and
their relationship with political affiliation?
Outline the functions of the editorial in media.
Discuss the politics of advertisement and the media.
8.5 POLITICAL JOURNALISM AND THE MEDIA
Political journalism is a broad range of journalism that includes coverage of
all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers
specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.
8.5.1 The Nature of Political Journalism
Political journalism argues a position of authority, promotes certain politicians,
and raises issues and insights to inform the public about public relations and to
mobilise people to act in political terms. Four characteristics of political journalism
include the following three emphasised by Neveu (2002) and the fourth added by
Kaciaf (2013):
(a) „Noble‰ Journalism
Involves journalists rubbing shoulders with politicians and covering
activities that are supposed to be able to change society’s destiny. Noble
journalism can be seen in the success of books that aim to give readers a
glimpse into the functioning of power.
b.
„Esoteric‰ Journalism
This encompasses journalists with access to a reality that most people do not
understand or are not interested in.
Proximity with Politicians
Political journalists are much closer to politicians and this leads them to share
politician's views and conceptions of politics.
Political Discourses (added by Kaciaf, 2013)
Political discourses are political acts in themselves and thus are different
from other discourses.
(c)
(d)
The government and media throughout the world will not always see eye-to-eye
on ethical and professional issues. By nature, democratically elected governments
expect public and media support for their policies. The press is often the willing
critic. Democracy is better served by either an adversarial press or a „consensual-
driven‰ press, depending on cultural perspectives. However, the press should
never be ritually adversarial or habitually cooperative.
Political journalism in Malaysia articulates values through the government’s
broad definition of the media’s role in fostering civic education and national
development. Political journalism in Malaysia is guardedly contentious,
constructively adversarial, and critically supportive. Former Prime Minister,
Tun Dr Mahathir, himself stated that journalism in Malaysia should be
constructive, consensual and development-oriented.
The relationship between the Malaysian media and government is borne from
historical and political necessity. In Malaysia, democratic government has the
authority to interfere and control the media. There are ups and downs in the
relationship between the media and government in Malaysia. However, both are
interdependent and there is symbiosis between the two.
Discrepancies between the Malaysian journalists ethical codes and their actual
behaviour points to their professional dilemma in trying to fulfil their prescribed
roles within the constraints and context of a multi-racial society going through
hard economic times; and holding their chin up to their Western counterparts,
whose freedom to report and hold the government to public accountability is
sacrosanct (Loo, 1998).
8.6 THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL JOURNALISM
The study of political journalism directs our attention to the relationship between
three elements in the process by which political action is conceived and realised
(McNair, 2011). The elements of political journalism encompass media relations
with political organisations and citizens (see Figure 8.2). These three elements will
be discussed further in the following subtopics.
Figure 8.2: Elements of political journalism
Source: McNair (2011)
8.6.1 Political Organisations
The political organisation is made up of political actors who are defined as
individuals who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to
influence the decision-making process (see Figure 8.2). McNair (2011) states that
these political organisations may seek to do this by attaining institutional political
power, in government or constituent assemblies, through which preferred policies
can be implemented.
(a) Parties
According to McNair (2011), this category of political actors is made up of
like-minded individuals who come together within an agreed organisational
and ideological structure to pursue common goals which reflect the partyÊs
underlying value system or ideology.
There are definitely differences in ideology that exist between political
parties in modern democracies as they share a commitment to constitutional
means of advancing their objectives, which involves attempting to convince
a population as a whole of their correctness, and putting their policies to the
test of periodic elections. Once mandated and they agree to abide by the
constitutional rules of the political system in which they operate, they would
have to respect the limitations being put on their power to implement or
oppose policy, until such time as another electoral opportunity comes along.
(b) Public Organisations
According to McNair (2011), surrounding the established institutions of
politics is a host of non-party organisations with political objectives. These
non-party actors can be divided into three categories:
(i)
(ii)
Trade unions;
Consumer groups; and
(iii) Professional associations and others.
The unity of these organisations is not because of ideology but by some
common feature of their members, for example, work problems (trade
unions) or weakness of the individual citizen facing large corporations
(consumer groups).
(c) Pressure Groups
Pressure groups are stakeholder groups that have a higher degree of political
involvement as the party urges the authorities directly and actively towards
policies and regulations as may be required. Pressure groups may be
distinguished from the public organisations as they are less institutionalised
and have more „political‰ objectives.
The concerns of pressure groups are usually issues related to conservation
of natural environment, and prevention of animal cruelty. They tend to
campaign around single issues, such as the anti-nuclear movement in the
early 1980s (Deacon & Golding, 1994).
(d) Terrorists Organisations
These organisations are groups using or threatening to use physical and
psychological violence that has been designed to achieve political goals
by targeting civilians contrary to international law and human values.
According to McNair (2011), the term „terrorist‰ here refers to groups which
use terror tactics, urban bombing, hijacking, assassination, and kidnapping,
to list the most common, to achieve their political objectives.
More commonly associated with terrorism, however, are such organisations
as the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, that is, until the 1998 peace
agreement. Most of these organisations regard their goals as being outside of
the constitutional process and use violence as a means of persuasion. These
organisations also actively court media attention, striving to make their
target public.
8.6.2 Audience
The audience can be defined as a market and the programme being presented is
the product offered. Basically, the audience is a group of people who read, listen
to and watch a variety of media. McNair (2011) states that the target of political
journalismÊs persuasion is the audience.
The audience for a particular political communication may be broad, as in a
billboard advertisement or a US election „spot‰, where the objective is to persuade
an entire nation of voters. Whatever the size and nature of the audience, however,
all political communication is intended to achieve an effect on the receivers of the
message.
Media
Media are forms and channels used to convey information or a message to the
public. These include websites operated by established media organisations such
as the BBC, CNN, and the Wall Street Journal; blogs and independent sites such as
Wikileaks which are devoted to reporting, aggregating or commenting on political
issues; and social networking sites such as Facebook, and Twitter, which allow
Internet users to share information rapidly.
In democratic political systems, the media functions both as transmitter of political
communication which originates outside the media organisation itself, and as
sender of political messages constructed by journalists and other producers such
as bloggers. As Figure 8.2 indicates, the role of the media in both respects is crucial.
First, and most obviously, political actors must use the media in order to have their
messages communicated to the desired audience.
Political journalism in Malaysia was built from the idea that media organisations
are partners and associates of the government. Paradoxically, media organisations
in Malaysia are seen as working together with the government for the good of
society within certain „boundaries‰, such as obeying regulations, commercialisation
and ownership rules, whilst negotiating for more freedom of the press.
The elements of political journalism constitute a complex relationship between
government, media and society. The major challenge is government control over
the mass media that continues to restrain media freedom, particularly in Malaysia
where the government is believed to own many shares in the countryÊs private
media.
8.7 POLITICS OF THE FRONT PAGE
There are some important issues that will be displayed on the front page, for
example, the issue of elections, war and international diplomacy. Wolfe, Boydstun
and Baumgartner (2009) state that the front page news is made up of two aspects:
space and attention. Front-page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on
different topics and have different characteristics because of the extremely limited
space on the front page.
According to Wolfe et al. (2009), front-page coverage, with its dramatically smaller
agenda space, is subject to much higher skew. Compared to full-paper coverage, a
small number of topics often gain very large proportion of the overall attention.
Similarly, front-page coverage is associated with much greater friction. Because it
has much higher „barriers to entry,‰ front-page attention tends to stay focused on
those topics that had been the focus of attention in the previous time period.
The power of the news is to set a nation’s agenda, to focus public attention on a
few key public issues and it is an immense and well-documented influence. The
front page is traditionally a political medium.
In Malaysia, most of the front page columns of The New Straits Time and The Star
gave priority to statements made by the Barisan National leaders especially the
Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. The NST carried positive reports on
the BN through headlines like „Barisan Nasional opts for renewal and the list is
...‰ (21 February 2008), „PM gives report card on Progress made from 2004 2007‰
(22 February 2008), „Expansive: BN promises prudence and accountability‰
(26 February 2008) (as cited in Mohd, 2009).
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages
An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue. This
article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board. A newspaper editorial
board consists of the editor and business manager. Editorials, usually unsigned or
published without a byline (author’s name), represent the opinion of the newspaper,
not a writer. The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently
contains opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.
However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page.
Editorial boards will often approve candidates in upcoming elections, and reading
the editorials from various newspapers on the same topic can give the researcher
a good sense of the general political leaning of a particular source. Editorials are
usually separated from news reporting so that readers can know when they are
reading a factual news report that tries to be objective and when they are reading
the opinion of the editors of the newspaper.
The editorial page of Malaysian newspapers can easily be found in the editorial
(opinion) section for both The NST and The Star newspapers. These editorial pages
are usually made up of news that discuss political, economic, education, health,
and public issues.
8.8 PRIME TIME NEWS
According to Nielsen (2011), the usual prime time for television is 8pm to 11pm,
Monday through Friday, while more Americans tune in from 9:15pm to 9:30pm
than at any other period during prime time. During this prime time, news and
television programmes will be broadcasted by the media. The reason is because
this prime time is the peak hour during which a large number of viewers catch up
on news and programmes after a long day at work.
Prime time news in Malaysia is broadcasted from 8pm to 9pm. Prime time news
targets the public after a long busy day at work and broadcasts news that begins
with political issues, issues within the society or community, education, sports and
finally world issues.
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News
Protocol is the official procedure or system of rules governing affairs of state or
diplomatic occasions. Hosso (2014) states that protocol depends on the application
areas and its subjects. It may be divided into the following branches: governmental
or state, diplomatic, military, ecclesiastical and sports.
According to Hosso (2014), both observance and neglect of rules in protocol have
a signalling effect: one can convey a message or an intention or deliver an opinion.
Politicians always need to convey their message in a credible, believable and
trustworthy way in order to reach their political goals.
However in Malaysia, the politics of protocols in prime time television news is
very much controlled and filtered by the government. Only selected scenes and
messages are shared for the people to see.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define political journalism.
Outline the elements of political journalism.
What do you understand by the politics of the front page?
Explain the functions of the editorial page.
Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.
•
A media gatekeeper is the person in the media who decides what is worthy of
being seen by the people. A gatekeeper is also the person who tells the writers
what to write about.
Media owners are businessmen who become owners of capital, and then found
or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
Censorship is the process of editing/keeping things like obscene words or
graphic images from an audience.
Political journalism includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political
science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil
governments and political power.
The elements of political journalism encompass media relations with political
organisations and citizens.
The political organisation is made up of political actors defined as individuals
who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to influence the
decision-making process.
The front page news is made up of two aspects, space and attention. Front-
page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on different topics and have
different characteristics because of the extremely limited space on the front
page.
An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue.
This article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board.
Editorials are usually unsigned or published without a byline (author’s name).
The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains
opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Censorship
Editorial
Editorial page
Front page
Gatekeepers
Media
Media owners
Political affiliation
Political journalism
Politics
Politics of advertisement
Politics of protocol
Prime time
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Retrieved from
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progress/2015/08/04/regulating-political-funding/
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Discuss the relationship between media ownership, gatekeeping
and political affiliation;
Explain the editorial functions of the media and media censorship;
Elaborate on the politics of advertisement and the media;
Outline the nature and elements of political journalism;
Explain the significance of the editorial and editorial pages; and
Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.
INTRODUCTION
Media and politics is a system where political information and roles are supported
through the mass media. Media tends to be the medium that disseminates
information on political affairs to enable the public to be involved in political and
national life. People rely on the media to keep up with politics and understand the
behaviour of political leaders.
8.1 THE MEDIA AND GATEKEEPERS
A media gatekeeper is a person in the media who decides what is worthy of being
seen by the people. Another way to think about it is that a gatekeeper is the person
who tells the writers what to write about. So, the gatekeeper’s responsibility is to
ensure that news broadcast is in consonance with the policies of the media owner
and state, and does not violate any rules, laws, ethics and norms of society.
A gatekeeper is responsible for determining the presentation of news in the media
which in turn determines the agenda presented to the audience. The media
gatekeeper in Malaysia is always sensitive to the government's needs, whereby
news is filtered and adjusted to portray government policies. Yang and Md. Sidin
(2014) claim that ownership has an impact on media gatekeeping decisions. They
found that political considerations were the primary external factor influencing
the gatekeeping of the newspapers.
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation
Capital interest has determined the direction of media growth since the 20th
century. Media owners are often businessmen who become owners of capital and
then found or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
The ownership of media organisations is very closely linked to domination of
political, economic and cultural flows. Media owners use their media entities to
achieve their own political purposes. Across developing countries, most major
media such as radio stations, television and newspapers are owned by the
government or the ruling party.
Malaysia’s mainstream newspapers are largely owned by the government or
businessmen and public figures in close relationship with the coalition parties of
the government. Although the news media is the main avenue of communication
between a government and its people, the Malaysian government appears to be
adopting a „government knows best‰ stance when it comes to the mainstream
media. One possible reason is that since Malaysia is a developing nation, the
government has to control the mainstream media to ensure that the media does
not side track and compromise national development and national security
(Anuar, 2007).
Smeltzer (2008) states that most of the media in Malaysia may, in fact, directly or
indirectly be owned by members of the ruling party or enjoy the political support
of the economic elites (refer to Table 8.1). The Malaysian media are largely owned
and indirectly controlled by 14 political parties that form the ruling Barisan and
also the other main opposition parties (Kenyon & Marjoribanks, 2007).
Media policies in Malaysia are also under the control of the state government
and the traditional media are said to be government friendly, and allow the
government to have certain degree of control on the media coverage.
Table 8.1: Ownership of Media in Malaysia
Ownership
UMNO
Company
Media Prima Berhad
Media
TV3, TV9, TV8, NTV7, HOT.FM, Fly.FM,
New Straits Times Press, Berita Harian,
Harian Metro
Utusan Malaysia, Utusan
KOSMO, Utusan Karya
The Star, Red 104.FM, Suria.FM
Harakah Daily
Rocket
Melayu,
Utusan Melayu (M) Berhad
MCA
PAS
DAP
Star Publications Berhad
Harakah
The Rocket
8.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE EDITORIAL
The editorial is a newspaper's official outlook on specific issues, including political
issues, and often appears in an official statement called an editorial. Editorials have
to be public watchdogs, to educate and to inform the public. According to Duyile
(2005), an editorial is the opinion of the newspaper simply written for the
understanding of readers, leading them to make decisions on the issues being
discussed. They will choose what will be reported and highlighted to the public.
Some of the common goals of editorials are to inform, educate, and entertain issues
broadcasted with reasons and facts for or against something. Journalists today
typically strive to maintain objectivity presenting a story without bias but
readers can still choose from among many different media outlets. There are often
distinct differences in the ways different newspapers, television news channels,
and radio networks present news about the same issues.
The editorial is a critical element in positioning the newspaper as a mediator
between the people and the many contending forces in contemporary society. The
editorial is an opinion and attitude of the media as a publishing institution towards
a particular issue or controversy that arises in the community. Opinions written
by the editors are assumed to represent the editorial opinions and attitudes of the
media.
Editorials in Malaysia may appear in forms like editorial cartoons or editorial
columns in the newspapers mainly for the purpose of agenda setting and framing.
Editorial cartoons, which are also known as political cartoons, are used to express
views on political issues and regarded as a reflection of freedom of speech.
Editorial cartoons have been published in Malaysian newspapers, such as Utusan
Melayu, Warta Melayu, Majlis and Lembaga since the 1930s. Some of the more
prolific cartoonists at that time include Abu Bakar bin Mohd, Nor Amir Hamzah
bin Mir Baru, Abd. Manan Ali Samad and Mohammad Nor Khalid or more
popularly known as Lat (Mahamood, 2004).
Presenting oneÊs ideas freely, even through editorial cartoons, may be risky.
Nonetheless, Mohammad Nor Khalid is the only Malaysian cartoonist who has
produced editorial cartoons depicting well-known political figures, including
Tun Dr Mahathir, and yet his caricatures are well accepted and appreciated
(Mahamood, 2004; Ujang, 2009).
8.3 CENSORSHIP
Censorship is a global phenomenon. Censorship involves reviewing something
and then choosing to remove or hide parts of it that are considered unacceptable.
Censorship is often used by a group which wants to control information for
personal gain, or to prevent other people from accessing information that should
be available. Censorship is a process or idea of keeping things like obscene words
or graphic images from an audience.
There is also such a thing as self-censorship, which is when one refrains from
saying certain things or possibly rewords them depending on who is listening.
Self-censorship is an act which is done to prevent annoyance and avoid
punishment from powerful players, such as the government, major advertisers or
corporations owning the news organisations, where there is no outside power to
tell them to censor their work.
Media censorship takes many forms in the way news is delivered. While news
stories are often edited for length, there are many choices that are made that are
designed to keep some information from becoming public. Sometimes these
decisions are made to safeguard a person's privacy, while at other times, the aim
is to protect media outlets from corporate or political fallout.
There are also different types of censorship. One of the most common criteria
behind censorship is the age limit for viewing different media. Sometimes
censorship can be carried out in the form of a blanket ban on a certain taboo topic.
A taboo topic would be defined according to the governing authority in the
country.
8.3.1 Political Censorship
Political censorship exists when a government attempts to conceal, fake, distort
or falsify information that its citizens receive, by suppressing or crowding out
political news in the news outlets. The government often possesses the power of
the army and the secret police, to enforce the compliance of journalists with the
will of the authorities to spread the story that the ruling authorities want people to
believe.
Violent speeches and derogatory comments about a particular race and religion
should be censored as they can only incite anger among the masses against the
said person or the organisation he/she is associated with. Such media tactics are
often used by political parties for selfish means while ignoring the greater good of
the society. This can only bring unrest among the masses and disrupt the peace
in the society. Censorship will prevent the public display of disrespect to any
particular individual or community and promote political correctness.
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia
Malaysia has some of the toughest censorship laws in the world. However, the
growth of the Internet has allowed some media activists to express their thoughts
without any limitations. Political content is not the only content that is censored.
There are is social, religious and moral censorship in Malaysia. Some newspapers
are restricted in their print versions and challenge government domination online
as the Internet provides much more freedom.
In Malaysia, censorship and self-censorship are imposed by the government. Self-
censorship is the exercising of control over what one says and does especially to
avoid criticism or severe reprimand. As shown in Figure 8.1, there are two types
of self-censorship in Malaysia: salient censorship and proscribed censorship (Loo,
2013).
Figure 8.1: Types of self-censorship in Malaysia
Source: Loo (2013)
Malaysian journalists are duty bound to essentially report on „safe‰ issues to
avoid inciting racial strife or propagating salacious promiscuity. According to
Communications and Multimedia Minister, Datuk Seri Dr Salleh Said Keruak, self-
censorship is important to ensure that the information received is valid and not
detrimental or disruptive to harmony in society and country (Malay Mail Online,
2015).
For many Malaysian journalists, the real threat does not come so much from
professional sanctions but a learned cautiousness against sackings, unannounced
arrests for any „mishandling‰ of information, or in some cases, expensive
defamation actions. Therefore, Malaysian newspapers generally offer a daily
diet of general business news and light social features. Fundamental issues of
environmental degradation, poverty, public corruption, public health, public
accountability or migrant labour are largely ignored (Loo, 2005).
8.4 POLITICS OF ADVERTISEMENT AND THE MEDIA
Bolland (1989) defines advertising as the „paid placement of organisational
messages in the media‰. Political advertising therefore, refers to the purchase and
use of advertising space, paid for at commercial rates, in order to transmit political
messages to a mass audience. The media used for this purpose may include
cinema, billboards, the press, radio, television and the Internet.
Advances in media have streamlined the processes of campaigning, giving
politicians and candidates the comfort and options of reaching out to larger
numbers of people and constituents with very little effort.
Apart from disseminating information, political advertisements are also designed
to persuade. The fundamental platform of political communication from
campaigns to voters, even in this changing world, is advertisement. In 1988,
George Bush and Michael Dukakis spent between them some $85 million on
television advertising. During the 1992 presidential campaign, George BushÊs
team spent upwards of $60 million on television advertising alone. Dwight D.
Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson also successfully utilised the
media for their political advertising campaigns.
In certain countries, political organisations may or may not be regulated by a
regulatory agency. For example, in Australia, the Australian Communications
Media Authority (ACMA) regulates the political advertisement in their country
and is responsible for the regulation of political and election matters in the
broadcast media, under the Broadcasting Services Act.
In Britain, although regulatory and stylistic conventions differ from those of the
US, political advertising is central to political communication. Today, of course,
television has been joined by the Internet as a platform for advertising of all kinds,
including political.
The role of political advertisement is great because it replaces the information that
cannot be delivered through news reports. In Malaysia, political advertising has
been practised since the 1960s. Political advertising in Malaysia is more prevalent
during elections in order to raise awareness or encourage a change in voters'
behaviour or perceptions. During general elections, the government expects
Malaysia's mainstream media not only to publicise but also to flaunt the Barisan
Nasional's achievements, particularly in the area of socio-economic development.
Based on Nielsen (2011) Advertising Information Services, Barisan Nasional had
spent RM9.8 million on advertisement in February 2008, which marked the
beginning of the election period. Meanwhile, Transparency International Malaysia
(TI-M) estimated that Barisan Nasional spent 7.68 per cent of its budget of RM94.5
million on print ads. The NST and The Star were utilised for the purpose of
campaigning for the Barisan Nasional party (Grewal, 2015).
Advertising campaigns are capable of influencing public opinion. The 2008 general
election showed how political campaigns by political parties became more intense
and creative through advertising. Government and opposition parties compete to
optimise the power of advertising to garner votes for their respective parties. The
government utilises media advertisements to remind Malaysians to „decide wisely
and vote‰ for candidates and parties that deserve to win the election.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss media censorship in the context of Malaysia. Give examples.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1.
2.
3.
What do you understand by media ownership, gatekeeping and
their relationship with political affiliation?
Outline the functions of the editorial in media.
Discuss the politics of advertisement and the media.
8.5 POLITICAL JOURNALISM AND THE MEDIA
Political journalism is a broad range of journalism that includes coverage of
all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers
specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.
8.5.1 The Nature of Political Journalism
Political journalism argues a position of authority, promotes certain politicians,
and raises issues and insights to inform the public about public relations and to
mobilise people to act in political terms. Four characteristics of political journalism
include the following three emphasised by Neveu (2002) and the fourth added by
Kaciaf (2013):
(a) „Noble‰ Journalism
Involves journalists rubbing shoulders with politicians and covering
activities that are supposed to be able to change society’s destiny. Noble
journalism can be seen in the success of books that aim to give readers a
glimpse into the functioning of power.
b.
„Esoteric‰ Journalism
This encompasses journalists with access to a reality that most people do not
understand or are not interested in.
Proximity with Politicians
Political journalists are much closer to politicians and this leads them to share
politician's views and conceptions of politics.
Political Discourses (added by Kaciaf, 2013)
Political discourses are political acts in themselves and thus are different
from other discourses.
(c)
(d)
The government and media throughout the world will not always see eye-to-eye
on ethical and professional issues. By nature, democratically elected governments
expect public and media support for their policies. The press is often the willing
critic. Democracy is better served by either an adversarial press or a „consensual-
driven‰ press, depending on cultural perspectives. However, the press should
never be ritually adversarial or habitually cooperative.
Political journalism in Malaysia articulates values through the government’s
broad definition of the media’s role in fostering civic education and national
development. Political journalism in Malaysia is guardedly contentious,
constructively adversarial, and critically supportive. Former Prime Minister,
Tun Dr Mahathir, himself stated that journalism in Malaysia should be
constructive, consensual and development-oriented.
The relationship between the Malaysian media and government is borne from
historical and political necessity. In Malaysia, democratic government has the
authority to interfere and control the media. There are ups and downs in the
relationship between the media and government in Malaysia. However, both are
interdependent and there is symbiosis between the two.
Discrepancies between the Malaysian journalists ethical codes and their actual
behaviour points to their professional dilemma in trying to fulfil their prescribed
roles within the constraints and context of a multi-racial society going through
hard economic times; and holding their chin up to their Western counterparts,
whose freedom to report and hold the government to public accountability is
sacrosanct (Loo, 1998).
8.6 THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL JOURNALISM
The study of political journalism directs our attention to the relationship between
three elements in the process by which political action is conceived and realised
(McNair, 2011). The elements of political journalism encompass media relations
with political organisations and citizens (see Figure 8.2). These three elements will
be discussed further in the following subtopics.
Figure 8.2: Elements of political journalism
Source: McNair (2011)
8.6.1 Political Organisations
The political organisation is made up of political actors who are defined as
individuals who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to
influence the decision-making process (see Figure 8.2). McNair (2011) states that
these political organisations may seek to do this by attaining institutional political
power, in government or constituent assemblies, through which preferred policies
can be implemented.
(a) Parties
According to McNair (2011), this category of political actors is made up of
like-minded individuals who come together within an agreed organisational
and ideological structure to pursue common goals which reflect the partyÊs
underlying value system or ideology.
There are definitely differences in ideology that exist between political
parties in modern democracies as they share a commitment to constitutional
means of advancing their objectives, which involves attempting to convince
a population as a whole of their correctness, and putting their policies to the
test of periodic elections. Once mandated and they agree to abide by the
constitutional rules of the political system in which they operate, they would
have to respect the limitations being put on their power to implement or
oppose policy, until such time as another electoral opportunity comes along.
(b) Public Organisations
According to McNair (2011), surrounding the established institutions of
politics is a host of non-party organisations with political objectives. These
non-party actors can be divided into three categories:
(i)
(ii)
Trade unions;
Consumer groups; and
(iii) Professional associations and others.
The unity of these organisations is not because of ideology but by some
common feature of their members, for example, work problems (trade
unions) or weakness of the individual citizen facing large corporations
(consumer groups).
(c) Pressure Groups
Pressure groups are stakeholder groups that have a higher degree of political
involvement as the party urges the authorities directly and actively towards
policies and regulations as may be required. Pressure groups may be
distinguished from the public organisations as they are less institutionalised
and have more „political‰ objectives.
The concerns of pressure groups are usually issues related to conservation
of natural environment, and prevention of animal cruelty. They tend to
campaign around single issues, such as the anti-nuclear movement in the
early 1980s (Deacon & Golding, 1994).
(d) Terrorists Organisations
These organisations are groups using or threatening to use physical and
psychological violence that has been designed to achieve political goals
by targeting civilians contrary to international law and human values.
According to McNair (2011), the term „terrorist‰ here refers to groups which
use terror tactics, urban bombing, hijacking, assassination, and kidnapping,
to list the most common, to achieve their political objectives.
More commonly associated with terrorism, however, are such organisations
as the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, that is, until the 1998 peace
agreement. Most of these organisations regard their goals as being outside of
the constitutional process and use violence as a means of persuasion. These
organisations also actively court media attention, striving to make their
target public.
8.6.2 Audience
The audience can be defined as a market and the programme being presented is
the product offered. Basically, the audience is a group of people who read, listen
to and watch a variety of media. McNair (2011) states that the target of political
journalismÊs persuasion is the audience.
The audience for a particular political communication may be broad, as in a
billboard advertisement or a US election „spot‰, where the objective is to persuade
an entire nation of voters. Whatever the size and nature of the audience, however,
all political communication is intended to achieve an effect on the receivers of the
message.
Media
Media are forms and channels used to convey information or a message to the
public. These include websites operated by established media organisations such
as the BBC, CNN, and the Wall Street Journal; blogs and independent sites such as
Wikileaks which are devoted to reporting, aggregating or commenting on political
issues; and social networking sites such as Facebook, and Twitter, which allow
Internet users to share information rapidly.
In democratic political systems, the media functions both as transmitter of political
communication which originates outside the media organisation itself, and as
sender of political messages constructed by journalists and other producers such
as bloggers. As Figure 8.2 indicates, the role of the media in both respects is crucial.
First, and most obviously, political actors must use the media in order to have their
messages communicated to the desired audience.
Political journalism in Malaysia was built from the idea that media organisations
are partners and associates of the government. Paradoxically, media organisations
in Malaysia are seen as working together with the government for the good of
society within certain „boundaries‰, such as obeying regulations, commercialisation
and ownership rules, whilst negotiating for more freedom of the press.
The elements of political journalism constitute a complex relationship between
government, media and society. The major challenge is government control over
the mass media that continues to restrain media freedom, particularly in Malaysia
where the government is believed to own many shares in the countryÊs private
media.
8.7 POLITICS OF THE FRONT PAGE
There are some important issues that will be displayed on the front page, for
example, the issue of elections, war and international diplomacy. Wolfe, Boydstun
and Baumgartner (2009) state that the front page news is made up of two aspects:
space and attention. Front-page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on
different topics and have different characteristics because of the extremely limited
space on the front page.
According to Wolfe et al. (2009), front-page coverage, with its dramatically smaller
agenda space, is subject to much higher skew. Compared to full-paper coverage, a
small number of topics often gain very large proportion of the overall attention.
Similarly, front-page coverage is associated with much greater friction. Because it
has much higher „barriers to entry,‰ front-page attention tends to stay focused on
those topics that had been the focus of attention in the previous time period.
The power of the news is to set a nation’s agenda, to focus public attention on a
few key public issues and it is an immense and well-documented influence. The
front page is traditionally a political medium.
In Malaysia, most of the front page columns of The New Straits Time and The Star
gave priority to statements made by the Barisan National leaders especially the
Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. The NST carried positive reports on
the BN through headlines like „Barisan Nasional opts for renewal and the list is
...‰ (21 February 2008), „PM gives report card on Progress made from 2004 2007‰
(22 February 2008), „Expansive: BN promises prudence and accountability‰
(26 February 2008) (as cited in Mohd, 2009).
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages
An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue. This
article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board. A newspaper editorial
board consists of the editor and business manager. Editorials, usually unsigned or
published without a byline (author’s name), represent the opinion of the newspaper,
not a writer. The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently
contains opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.
However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page.
Editorial boards will often approve candidates in upcoming elections, and reading
the editorials from various newspapers on the same topic can give the researcher
a good sense of the general political leaning of a particular source. Editorials are
usually separated from news reporting so that readers can know when they are
reading a factual news report that tries to be objective and when they are reading
the opinion of the editors of the newspaper.
The editorial page of Malaysian newspapers can easily be found in the editorial
(opinion) section for both The NST and The Star newspapers. These editorial pages
are usually made up of news that discuss political, economic, education, health,
and public issues.
8.8 PRIME TIME NEWS
According to Nielsen (2011), the usual prime time for television is 8pm to 11pm,
Monday through Friday, while more Americans tune in from 9:15pm to 9:30pm
than at any other period during prime time. During this prime time, news and
television programmes will be broadcasted by the media. The reason is because
this prime time is the peak hour during which a large number of viewers catch up
on news and programmes after a long day at work.
Prime time news in Malaysia is broadcasted from 8pm to 9pm. Prime time news
targets the public after a long busy day at work and broadcasts news that begins
with political issues, issues within the society or community, education, sports and
finally world issues.
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News
Protocol is the official procedure or system of rules governing affairs of state or
diplomatic occasions. Hosso (2014) states that protocol depends on the application
areas and its subjects. It may be divided into the following branches: governmental
or state, diplomatic, military, ecclesiastical and sports.
According to Hosso (2014), both observance and neglect of rules in protocol have
a signalling effect: one can convey a message or an intention or deliver an opinion.
Politicians always need to convey their message in a credible, believable and
trustworthy way in order to reach their political goals.
However in Malaysia, the politics of protocols in prime time television news is
very much controlled and filtered by the government. Only selected scenes and
messages are shared for the people to see.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define political journalism.
Outline the elements of political journalism.
What do you understand by the politics of the front page?
Explain the functions of the editorial page.
Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.
•
A media gatekeeper is the person in the media who decides what is worthy of
being seen by the people. A gatekeeper is also the person who tells the writers
what to write about.
Media owners are businessmen who become owners of capital, and then found
or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
Censorship is the process of editing/keeping things like obscene words or
graphic images from an audience.
Political journalism includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political
science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil
governments and political power.
The elements of political journalism encompass media relations with political
organisations and citizens.
The political organisation is made up of political actors defined as individuals
who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to influence the
decision-making process.
The front page news is made up of two aspects, space and attention. Front-
page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on different topics and have
different characteristics because of the extremely limited space on the front
page.
An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue.
This article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board.
Editorials are usually unsigned or published without a byline (author’s name).
The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains
opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Censorship
Editorial
Editorial page
Front page
Gatekeepers
Media
Media owners
Political affiliation
Political journalism
Politics
Politics of advertisement
Politics of protocol
Prime time
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