Topic 9 Media, Politics and Globalisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Define globalisation;
Discuss the impact of globalisation on socio-cultural, political and
economic transformation;
Describe the effect of globalisation on the media system; and
Explain how new media has transformed politics and political
communication.
INTRODUCTION
According to some scholars and observers, globalisation began when people began
to travel across the world from one point to another. Thus, globalisation is not new.
For thousands of years, people and, later, corporations have been buying from
and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk
Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle
Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises
in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation
are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
However, with the advent of information and communications technology (ICT),
rapid globalisation is occurring due to the enabling role of ICT.
9.1 GLOBALISATION
Although the word „globalisation‰ was not coined until the second half of the
twentieth century, the origin of globalisation has been traced back to the period
between 1450 and 1500 AD. This period is referred to as the „mercantilist period‰
and characterised by the development of trade in the quest for commercial empires
to broaden their markets (Amiuwu, 2004; Scholte, 2002; as cited in Ugbam,
Chukwu, & Ogbo, 2014). Propelled by advancements in transportation and
information technology, globalisation has practically shrunk the world into one
global village (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Globalisation is turning everything that is different into one thing
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/502010689686280918/
Globalisation means different things to different people. For some, it creates
positive political, economic and technological progress. Globalisation is a process
of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided
by information technology.
The process has effects on the environment, culture, political systems, economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world. According to Friedman (2000), globalisation is the inexorable
integration of markets, nation states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed
before. The following subtopics will further discuss globalisation and socio-
cultural, political and economic transformation.
9.1.1 Globalisation and Socio-cultural Transformation
Before the advent of globalisation, our societies were mainly agrarian, as in
they were mostly involved in agriculture. Later on, the forces of globalisation
marginalised such types of societies.
Agricultural activities became activities of the few as most of the population are
freed to work in factories, shops and offices (Giddens, 2013). Cities became greatly
populated, but at the same time, emphasised the anonymity of modern life. The
result was the expansion of industrial technology into military as well as civilian
life and this allows the socio-cultural hegemony of the West to expand at the
expense of other cultures.
In discussing the transformation of societies through globalisation, the term
„developing societies‰ is adopted. These societies differ from traditional societies
in three respects: politically they are nation-states; most are undergoing the
experience of urbanisation; and agriculture dominates but as an export crop rather
than for subsistence. Many of these countries continue to suffer worsening poverty
exacerbated by the cost of servicing their debts to the West, but the developing
world is far from homogeneous and also includes the economic „success stories‰
of newly industrialising countries (NICs) such as Brazil, Mexico and South Korea.
The Asian NICs are involved in both traditional industrial production (steel,
shipbuilding) and innovations such as electronics and financial services.
In tracing the development of these different types of society, scholars have been
engaged in the study of social change. Change is difficult to define, as everything
changes all of the time. A change becomes significant when there are alterations in
underlying structures and modifications of basic institutions.
Social theory has failed to produce a convincing mono-causal explanation of social
change, but three main factors that have influenced social change are identified:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cultural factors; The physical environment; and Political organisation.
Technological changes promoted rapid change during the modern era leading to
globalisation. Among the constituents and causes of globalisation is the growth in
information and communications technology, most notably the advent of fibre-
optic cables and communications satellites. The impact of this is uneven, but
everywhere it is on an upward trajectory.
ICT helps in the compression of time and space and accelerates
interconnectedness. In this sphere, transnational corporations (TNCs) contribute
to the globalising dynamics by operating their business across borders, whether
they are Coca-Cola or Colgate-Palmolive. Alongside TNCs, we are introduced to
the „global commodity chain‰, the worldwide networks of labour and production
processes leading to a finished product.
The flow of information on the large array of fresh produce on offer in the
supermarket, and the constant transportation of the goods have created the
concepts of „food miles‰ and „local produce‰ in eco-debates. A second argument
concerns global culture, a social fact maintained and reinforced by television, the
global economy, „citizens of the world‰, transnational organisations and electronic
communications.
According to Ogohi (2014), the social aspect is that globalisation has deeply
influenced the social structure of different societies. Every society used to have its
own unique culture with respect to the language, social norms, morality, civic
sense and other aspects. With the advent of globalisation through the aid of
technology, this special capability to influence millions at the same time has
challenged the social institutions of the society, mainly the family.
A particular society following its style of living without being much influenced by
Western culture is now seen as uncivilised, which is a very cunningly designed
propaganda of the West to inculcate their culture into the rest of the world and
thereby dominate the globe. Culture links us to our historical past. In other words,
it determines a particular way of people's behaviour, ways of acting and ways of
thinking.
Culture also defines the value system, customs, education and knowledge of a
people. Culture is the channel through which knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits are conveyed to members of a
community from generation to generation (Bello, 2001).
Culture consists of the values and rules we live by, our ideas of good and evil, our
language and our religion. However, the socio-cultural phenomenon, which gives
people identity, personality and individuality, has been masked by globalisation.
The hegemonisation of culture by the Western world or rather, by America, is an
obvious attempt to leave the society of the southern countries or developing
countries, without identity, individuality or personality.
The overall effect on us is that we become mindless atoms in the material world.
This perhaps accounts for why some have defined globalisation from a negative
perspective. Aborishade (2002) maintains that globalisation is Western
imperialism, particularly, American imperialism, which seeks to enforce its
hegemony on other nations through threats of economic, political or military
coercion. To him, globalisation does not only deepen inequality between the core
and the periphery nations, it also seeks to wage unparalleled attacks on the rights
and prosperity of poor nations.
On the other hand, culture is very much an elusive term to define, perhaps because
of its wider scope and broad nature. However, what comes to mind while thinking
of culture is values and norms people have which make them live in a particular
way. It is a way of living in a particular community. It is therefore, the sum total
of all things that refer to religion, cultural roots of people, symbols, languages,
songs, stories, celebrations, clothing and dressing, and all expressions of our way
of life. It encompasses food productions, technology, architecture, kinship, the
interpersonal relationships, political and economic systems and all the social
relationships these entail.
One truth about culture is that it is learned. Such learning does not take place
through natural inheritance. It is not genetically transmitted. Rather, it takes place
by a process of absorption from the social environment or through deliberate
instruction, or through the process of socialisation. If culture is learned, it may
follow to say that it can equally be unlearned. If it follows, then, Malaysia, for
example, has a lot to unlearn (those Western values that are alien and destructive
to the Malaysian culture) from the contact with the West. However, this does not
suggest that Malaysia, for example, has nothing good to learn from the West.
Indeed, there are many.
Another truth about culture is that it is dynamic. Culture is never static. Every now
and then we are being transformed culturally. It changes exactly the same way as
human beings change. This transformation is gradual and not sudden or abrupt.
According to Fridah (1998), culture is a continuous process of change but in spite
of the change, culture continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity,
continuity, and security and binds society together.
The dynamism of culture casts doubt on the possibility of a global culture. Part of
this dynamism is that each culture has its own personality. The fact that we are all
humans does not mean that we are all the same. To ignore this would mean to
destroy God's own beautiful rainbow made from the many colours of cultural
diversity. But central to globalisation is the idea of a global culture (Guillen, 2001).
However, there are only a few scholars who accept that a global culture is in the
making. A „culture ideology of consumerism‰ driven by symbols, images and
aesthetics of lifestyles and self-image has spread throughout the world and is
having some momentous effects including standardisation of tastes and desires
(Guillen, 2001; Leslie, 1991) which goes a long way to affect culture.
The combination of progressively advanced technology and complex social
structure, which are sustained by the ideas of change as desirable progress,
enhances social change as being one of the major impacts of globalisation. The
social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on the life
and work of people, families and societies. There are clearly other social aspects of
globalisation beyond the employment, working dimensions, income, and social
protection.
Globalisation is seen therefore, as the new coloniser, insensitively spreading
particular views of the world into developing nations in the mistaken belief that
this is actually helping people. The potential power of globalisation to spread
dominant ideologies and to crush emerging structures, whether wittingly or
unwittingly, is the main cause of concern.
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation
The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. Within the
internal and domestic politics of countries, the advent of globalisation has left an
unprecedented mark. The conduct of election campaigns, for example, has a wide
reaching effect, since by using online campaign, messages travel across national
borders. Using online campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has
become the norm.
Another political development is the spread of institutions of government that do
not match national boundaries, such as the European Union, the United Nations
and a tranche of non-governmental bodies. The spread of information across
borders does not just destabilise regimes, as in Tiananmen Square or Berlin; it also
creates international awareness, for example, through pictures from war zones.
The global outlook that follows from this leads some to look for referents both
above and below the nation-state for identities or allegiances.
The collapse of the Soviet „bloc‰ reintegrated a large number of countries into the
trading community. As global communications overrode ideological control of the
state media, one could argue that globalisation was both cause and consequence
of the break-up of Soviet hegemony.
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation
Gone are the days when countries trade and do business within a particular
locality or region. Come globalisation, no country is an island and countries of the
world trade among themselves. With the advancements in transportation and
telecommunication facilities, distance is no longer a hurdle. Advancement in
information and communication technology has further brought an impact on
globalisation. With the advent of the electronic economy, not only is physical
capital more mobile between countries but financial capital can also flow and ebb
within seconds on a computer screen. Hence, we are living in a world which has
experienced economic transformation more than ever before.
Globalisation has changed situations in such a manner that power of state is
determined by the power of the firm. If the goal of globalisation is a more liberal
exchange of goods, services, labour, thoughts etc., which in later stages would
make the world uniform, then there would be no space for identity. Globalisation
is not a debate about divergence or convergence, but a dialectical process which
can both integrate and fragment, while creating both winners and losers, especially
in the economic arena.
In line with globalisation, countries must allow the free and unselective operations
of transnational corporations in their economies; open their economies freely and
indiscriminately to imports and concentrate on exporting what they are supposed
to be good at; reduce the role of governments in the economy to that of supporting
the market and private enterprise; and leave the determination of prices of goods,
currencies, labour as well as the allocation of resources to the operation of the
market, which is called the „free-market‰ or „laissez faire‰ economy.
In the light of the above, one can argue that, globalisation is primarily not a neutral
process driven by laws and factors of development, such as technology, and
operating outside of human control and agency. Rather, it is a conscious
programme of restructuring international economic and political relations in line
with a particular set of interests (the profit motivations of businesses, especially
the transnational corporations of the advanced industrial countries) and vision
(the belief in the primacy of the free market and of private enterprise in all
processes of human development) (Fridah, 1998).
ACTIVITY 9.1
Explain the impact of globalisation on the socio-cultural, political and
economic transformation in your country.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What do you understand by the term globalisation?
9.2 GLOBALISATION AND THE MEDIA SYSTEM
Before the 1990s, most mainstream media belonged to the state and focussed
mostly on national issues. However, from the 1990s most communication media
have become progressively global, reaching the global audience. The international
flows of information have been assisted by the development of global capitalism,
new technologies and the increasing commercialisation of global television, which
have occurred as a result of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries
in Europe and the US, facilitating the proliferation of cable and satellite channels
(Matos, 2012).
Early advancement in globalisation of communication was facilitated by the
development of technologies capable of transmitting messages via electromagnetic
news, marking a turning point in advancing the globalisation of communications.
This gave birth to international news agencies such as Reuters in the 19th century
which paved the way for the beginning of a global system of codification.
It was in the 1960s, with the launch of the first geo-stationary communication
satellite, that transmission became fully global, thus making the globalisation of
communications a unique phenomenon of the 20th century (Thompson, 1995).
News agencies are seen as crucial to the globalisation thesis as they are closely tied
to the modernisation of the West and the expansion of communication media since
their appearance in the mid-19th century. They have an important role to play.
International news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, United Press
International and Agence France-Presse (AFP) are seen by media scholars as
having contributed to a global agenda and creating perceptions of the South
(developing countries) as being a place of corruption, political instability due to
government overthrow and disaster for Western audiences.
These four agencies have remained key players that dominate the global
dissemination of news and information, with many newspapers and other media
organisations across the world depending on them for international news.
The advent of the Internet has further made the media very impactful, whereby
news agencies and the press have an online presence thereby furthering the
globalisation agenda of the media system. A media house or press that has no
online presence would be left behind. This is obvious all around us. The media
system in Malaysia also has an online presence making it global.
9.3
NEW MEDIA AND POLITICS
With the advent of new media, the way politics is conducted has been largely
affected. This has brought a new dimension to the way political communication is
done. The new media has permeated the domain of political communication for
about a decade now. A classical case was the use of new media in politics during
the Obama campaign back in 2008. In Malaysia, the use of new media in politics
occurred during roughly the same period, during the 12th General Elections (Ali
Salman & Mohd Safar Hasim, 2011). However, the Obama campaign had a
tremendous impact on the electorate, especially the millennial generation when
compared with the Malaysian scenario. Yet the impact on the Malaysian electorate
cannot be discounted.
On 4 November 2008, more than 12 million young Americans selected the person
who made them believe in their abilities to bring about change, the person who
gave them hope, and the person who made them feel united. It was Barack Obama
who won the election and it was young people who were pivotal in helping him
win. The Obama campaign itself was said to draw lessons and inspirations from
the new media tools in the Howard Dean primary campaign in 2004.
Prior to the Obama campaign, Howard Dean was the first to validate the power
of online communities for politics in the new media era. As Dean pointed out,
he himself learned that politics has to respond to popular demand and move
away from traditional concepts. „You have to build community, not just
enable fundraising. You need to listen, be willing to lead and be willing to be
decentralised,‰ he said (Teachout & Steerman, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
As his campaign was going on, Dean’s team was turning the one-way political
communication path into a two-way street, benefiting on various levels from
citizens desire to act. A lot of ideas for the Dean campaign came from the
grassroots.
In the new media environment, political communication is more effective when
it is two-way, and with a lot of ideas stemming from bottom to top. Similarly,
Obama’s campaign was engineered as a bottom-up campaign and so was his
communication strategy (Tumulty, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010). Dean was
the first to tell people: „You have the Power.‰ Obama adapted Dean’s strategy
by addressing the nation with the words „Yes, We Can.‰ By comparison, both
Clinton’s and McCain’s communication strategies followed top-down schemes
(Lopez-Ayala, 2008; Feltz, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
In the Malaysian context, the run up to the 2008 General Elections saw the
opposition, more than Barisan Nasional (BN), using blogs to attract young voters
in particular. This strategy paid off as for the first time in a General Elections, a
blogger turned politician from the opposition won a seat in parliament. This took
the ruling BN by surprise as they were caught off guard (Ali Salman & Mohd Safar
Hasim, 2011). From this development, the political landscape began to change as
a result of the increasing use of new media in politics.
Following the events of 2008, the use of new media in politics became the norm
and in 2013, the Malaysian General Elections was dubbed the social media
elections. As distinct from the 2008 General Elections, where blogs were mainly
used, the 2013 elections saw the use of social media platforms like Facebook and
twitter.
The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape playing an
important role in political communication. Those politicians who are ardent in
using new media stand to benefit in their political communication and campaigns
while those who are still sceptical about social media stand to lose.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain how globalisation affects the media system.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe how new media has changed the political landscape and
political communication. Support your answers with examples.
•
Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by
international trade and investment, and aided by information technology.
Culture is a continuous process of change but in spite of the change, culture
continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity, continuity, and
security and binds society together.
The social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on
the life and work of people, families and societies.
The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. The conduct
of election campaigns, for example, has a wide reaching effect, since by using
online campaigns, messages travel across national borders. Using online
campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has become the norm.
•
•
The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape.
Politicians who are ardent in using new media stand to gain lots of benefits in
their political communication and campaigns, while those who are sceptical
about social media stand to lose.
Developing societies
Economic transformation
Electromagnetic news
Global culture
Global village
Globalisation
Homogeneous
Industrial technology
Information technology
Integration
Interaction
International trade and investment
Mainstream media
Newly industrialising countries (NICs)
Political communication
Political transformation
Social change
Social media
Socio-cultural hegemony
Socio-cultural transformation
Southern or developing countries
Traditional societies
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
Aborishade, F. (2002). Effects of globalization on social and labour practices
in privatized enterprises in Nigeria. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Centre for
Advanced Social Sciences.
Aida Idris. (2015). Globalisation and socio-economic development in Malaysia:
Wither small businesses? Asian Journal of Business and Accounting, 5(1),
109 127.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION
Alexandrova, E. (2010). Using new media effectively: An analysis of Barack
Obama’s election campaign aimed at young Americans (Masters thesis,
Fordham University). Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/1526998/Using_New_Media_Effectively_an_A
nalysis_of_Barack_Obamas_Election_Campaign_Aimed_at_Young_Americ
ans
Ali Salman, & Mohd Safar Hasim. (2011). New media and democracy: The
changing political landscape in Malaysia. AKADEMIKA, 81(1), 15 21.
Ugbam, O. C., Chukwu, D. B., & Ogbo, D. A. (2014). The effects of globalization on
African culture: The Nigerian perspective. IOSR Journal of Business and
Management, 16(4), 62 71.
Bello, S. (2001). African’s culture Paradigm for African technological
development. Retrieved from www.africult/develop/html
Fridah, M. (1998). The effects of globalization on culture in Africa in the eyes of an
African woman. ECHOES. World Council of Churches.
Friedman, T. L. (2000). The lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization.
New York, NY: Anchor Books.
Giddens, A. (2013). Sociology (7th ed.). Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Guillen, M. F. (2001). Is globalization civilizing, destructive or feeble? A critique of
five key debates in the social science literature. Annual Review of Sociology,
27(1), 235 260.
Leslie, S. (1991). Sociology of the global system. New York, NY: Harvester
Wheatsheaf.
Matos, C. (2012). Globalization and the mass media. In Encyclopedia of
globalization. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell.
Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in
Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(17), 31 41.
Scholte, J. A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London, England:
Macmillan Press.
Thompson, J. B. (1995). The media and modernity: A social theory of the media.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Discuss why the media are called the king makers in political
information;
Identify the methods and evaluation processes used in the study of
media and politics;
Explain how technological developments have affected the
relationship between media and politics;
Describe media content analysis; and
Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative content analysis.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the relationship between media and politics, research
methods and evaluation processes. As you go through the topic, you should
be able to undertake the process of conducting an impact study of political
information in the media on the audience. This topic describes the evaluation
process and identifies the two main types of content analysis. You will also look at
the value of content analysis in political communication.
In a democratic society, media is used for the exchange of ideas and opinions, by
both those in power and the general public. The media will continue to be the
main source of information for the citizens in any democratic society both in the
developed and developing countries.
The mass media has a strong influence on politics, and could shape public opinion.
Importantly, the media should fulfil its political role as a means of disseminating
unbiased information, so that the general public could make their own political
choices, and therefore participate in the national discourse that affects their lives.
In a true democratic society, the media helps to inform the general public and also
acts as a watchdog to the government. Ideally, the mass media should make the
political system more open and „transparent‰ by creating an equal playing field
both for the politicians and the people to participate in political decisions.
10.1
POLITICS
Politics could be defined as a decision-making process and effort to attain decision-
making positions and resources that could be used to further oneÊs own political
interest (Louw, 2010). For one to gain and retain political power, there has to be
some element of control or authority.
In a liberal democratic society, politicians normally gain access to power through
election. This is the reason why politicians and political parties will always need
the media to advertise their party manifestos and highlight their political agendas
in order to encourage large numbers of people to vote for them.
Successful and impressive media management could enhance the aura of
politicians and help them gain access to parliament and government, where
policies and power are executed.
10.2 IMPACT STUDY OF POLITICAL
INFORMATION IN THE MEDIA
Media is the most important cultural resource for politicians and political parties.
As a key political „king maker‰, the media discourses legitimise or de-legitimise
hierarchies of positions.
Technological development has drastically changed the relationship between
media and politics. With the rise of the Internet since the 1980s and 1990s, social
media now virtually involves almost everybody in society whether regular
citizens, activists, software providers, telecommunications firms, non-government
and government organisations. In the new media environment, there are different
social network services and also blogs which have had significant impact on
present day society. The public is now actively aware of what is happening daily
in the political circle.
The new media has allowed the public more access to political news, thereby
avoiding the usual barriers they normally encounter, such as, control of publishers,
editors and journalists in the traditional media (McPhail, 2002). However, Tay
(2000) is of the opinion that even with the new media, many Asian governments
minimise or control the role of media as watchdog, and as an independent check-
and-balance on the government of the day. In a book titled The Emergence of
American Political Issues, Shaw and McCombs (1977) wrote: „The most significant
effect of the media was its ability to organise our world for us. The news media are
stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.
10.2.1
Types of Methods
Most studies on the impact of political information in the media apply focus
group methods, in-depth-interviews, online analytics, quantitative, and qualitative
research methods, surveys and social media analysis. Through this combination
of methodological approaches, media experts could gain a comprehensive
understanding on the beliefs, attitudes and political beliefs of the audience.
In a bid to understand the impact of political information in the media on their
audience, the Harmony Institute developed „HI score,‰ which is a system to
quantify or assess how media impact influences political beliefs of the people
during electioneering campaigns (Abelson, 2012). An initial attempt at generating
HI scores combined data from Twitter, news media, and Google searches. As the
test set, the Harmony Institute selected the last three years of Oscar-nominated
documentary films. This list provided comparable examples and allowed the
researchers to expand on some of their past work. Through a trial-and-error
process, they arrived at a score of 1 to 100 (the higher the better) that estimates the
influence of a documentary film over time (Abelson, 2012).
10.2.2
Evaluation Process
Mass media can facilitate short-term, intermediate, and long-term effects on their
audiences. The short-term effects include the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Exposing audiences to political information;
Creating awareness and knowledge;
Altering out-dated or incorrect knowledge; and
Enhancing audience recall of particular advertisements or public service
announcements, promotions, or programme names.
The intermediate effects include behavioural changes and perceptions of social
norms. Long-term effects incorporate all of the above, together with focused
restructuring of perceived social norms, and maintenance of behavioural change.
Iyengar (1991) evaluates the effects of news coverage on public opinion and
political choice, saying that „The framing of issues by television forms the way the
society understands the causes and the solutions to central political problems‰.
Shaw and McCombs (1977) studied the agenda-setting capacity of the news media
in American presidential elections and present the results in their book The
Emergence of American Political Issues.
10.2.3
The Usage and Function of Impact Analysis
The analysis of more than 30,000 news features of the Danish government in power
aired over the Danish radio station for the past 20 years was conducted by teams
of social scientists. They found that critical coverage in the media could lead to a
decline in the public ratings of a government. The study does not agree with the
theory that having more media coverage is always good for the government.
The study by Shotts and Ashworth (2010) from the University of Chicago found
that when you have a healthy media, it would make those holding political
positions less likely to engage in activities that could tarnish their image. The
researchers constructed a theoretical model in their study using well-established
principles of game theory. They found that if the media always produced
commentaries on policy choices, there would be less incentive for politicians to
pander since voters would know what policies were in their interest. This freedom
allows politicians to avoid pandering and to take actions that are good for the
voters without fear of being criticised by the media.
Most journalists operate under the belief that when it comes to political issues, only
bad news is worth reporting. Therefore, citizens are hardly treated to stories about
how political institutions are functional or how government officials are admirable
public servants. Rather, the news media would always have the tendency to
highlight political misunderstanding, malfeasance, and scandals among party
members (Bennett, 1996).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1.
2.
Why are the media called „king makers‰ in political information?
What are the methods used to assess the impact of political
information on the audience?
ACTIVITY 10.1
How have technological developments affected the relationships
between media and politics? Discuss this question in the context of the
Malaysian politics. Share your findings in the online forum.
10.3
CONTENT ANALYSIS
The generally accepted definition of content analysis was provided by Berelson
(1952), who described it as a „research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication‰.
However, this definition was found wanting among researchers because the word
„objective‰ had raised some argument from researchers, such as Berger and
Luckman (1967). In their classic study on The Social Construction of Reality, Berger
and Luckman (1967) state that even the most scientific methods of social research
cannot really produce objective results. With regard to media content, they argue
that media texts are always open to different interpretations from researchers and
that its analysis could not be said to be objective.
Other definitions of content analysis include those listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Definitions of Content Analysis
Source: Stone, Dunphy, Smith and Ogilvie (1966)
Weber (1990) Lasswell, Lerner and Pool (1952)
Definition
Content analysis is any research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying
specified characteristics within text.
Content analysis is a research method that uses a set of
procedures to makes valid inferences from text.
• Content analysis operates on the view that verbal
behaviour is a form of human behaviour, that the flow of
symbols is a part of the flow of events, and that the
communication process is an aspect of the historical
process.
• Content analysis is a technique which aims at describing,
with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, what
is said on a given subject in a given place at a given time.
In 1948, Lasswell (as cited in Shoemaker & Reese, 1996) defined media content
analysis as „Who says what, through which channel, to whom, with what effect‰.
Berelson (1952) lists out the main purposes of content analysis as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
To predict the effects of content on the intended audience;
To make inferences about audiences of content;
To make inferences about producers of content; and
To describe characteristics of message contents.
During the 1920s and 1930s, media content analysis became a very popular
research methodology for the investigation of movies.
10.3.1
The Value of Content Analysis to the Political Process
In political content analysis, the process should apply systematic research
techniques and a researcher should strive for objectivity, validity as well as
reliability. A key component in content analysis is the coding book or coding list,
that is, a list of all the variables, or the units of analysis to be researched.
The value of content analysis to the political process is that it should contain
examination of multiple variables (multivariable). In content analysis, the primary
units (variables) are messages expressed as words or phrases. In the coding list, all
the messages which are considered to be relevant in the study are listed, whether
they are negative or positive.
The coding list may also include some categories of issues, places or topics and
may also seek to identify important names of certain sources like individuals and
organisations relevant to issues in the messages to be analysed.
10.3.2
Types of Content Analysis
There are various types of content analysis, such as the following:
(a)
Quantitative Content Analysis
In quantitative content analysis, data are usually determined by the key
contents, circulation of media, audience reach and also the frequencies of
units of analysis. Quantitative content analysis considers the media form,
such as visual media and television. Neuendorf (2002) is of the view that
what is important in content analysis is both content form and characteristics.
Neuendorf (2002) argues that media content is quantitative in nature only,
whereas Shoemaker and Reese (1996) say that it is a good idea to apply a
combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to achieve
a balanced result. According to these researchers, “behavioural content
analysis is not necessarily conducted using quantitative or numerical
techniques but the two (quantitative and qualitative) tend to go together”
(Shoemaker & Reese, 1996). They further state that humanistic content
analysis study moves towards quantitative analysis. They say that reducing
large amounts of text to quantitative data does not provide a complete
picture of meaning and contextual codes, since text may contain many other
forms of emphasis besides sheer repetition.
(b)
Qualitative Content Analysis
Qualitative content analysis is a method that examines the relationship
between text and meaning. It recognises that media texts are polysemic, in
other words, that it is open to different meanings to a lot of readers. This
method of research analysis pays more attention to the audience, media and
contextual factors and not just simply the text.
It could therefore be concluded that qualitative content analysis relies
significantly on the researchersÊ „readings‰ and interpretations of the media
text. This type of media research is very intensive and time consuming. This
is the reason qualitative content analysis tends to use a small sample size and
this has resulted in its being criticised by some researchers as not being
scientific and being unreliable.
It could be said that quantitative content analysis is able to conform to certain
levels of scientific analysis, can produce reliable findings and is positivist in
nature. This is not the same with qualitative content analysis, which is
relatively difficult and unable to give a reliable and scientific result. Even
with the shortcomings of qualitative analysis, its text contents are important
and help to reveal a thick description of words and their deeper meanings
and also the likely interpretation of action. However, it is good to combine
the two methods to overcome any shortcomings.
10.4
GENERAL METHODS AND PROCESS OF
CONTENT ANALYSIS
There are several studies that discuss the general methods and process of content
analysis such as those conducted by Krippendorff (2004), Neuendorf (2002) and
Riffe, Lacy and Fico (2005). Content analyses can be conducted via human or
computer analysis. Both human and computer content analysis use the same basic
method they require conceptual, reliable categories, and a reasonable sample size
for the analysis.
However, these two methods differ in some areas. For example, computer content
analysis requires computer files of sample texts for analysis while in human
analysis, physical texts are read and coded by humans (trained researchers).
Computer software is then used to analyse the results just like in regular survey
research.
Examples of computer programs that are most often used at this stage for database
and storage are SPSS, for statistical analysis and Excel, for the tabulation of data
and calculations. The Excel program is used to generate graphic programs and
charts. Many social researchers and authors such as Newbold, Boyd-Barrett and
Van Den Bulck (2002) have claimed that computer media content analysis is
irrelevant, and are of the view that this should be done manually.
When content analysis is conducted in different languages and across cultures,
there is mostly likely the problem of machine coding. This is because most of the
automated coding systems work only with English texts, and when computer
translations are used, they may not be reliable except for basic interpretation.
On the other hand, when human coding is used, the software applied in storing
the data and doing the analysis is not that significant to the research. Hence, a very
good reliable program needs to be used. What is more important at that stage is
the methodology applied. Likewise, the training of the coders is important to
ensure that the content analysis is done in accordance with strict criteria.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1.
2.
3.
What is media content analysis?
Discuss the differences between quantitative and qualitative
content analysis.
Discuss human versus computer content analysis.
•
In a democratic society, the media will continue to be a watchdog to the
government in power. Also, there is a need to make the mass media open and
transparent to people, including politicians, to enable participation in the
political decisions process.
Technological developments in the 1980s and 1990s drastically changed the
relationship between media and politics. With the advent of the Internet
and social media, almost everybody can get virtually involved in political
discourse. The „king makers‰ in media and political communication are
therefore the mass media.
To understand the impact of political information in the media on their
audience, researchers usually conduct focus group studies, in-depth-
interviews, online analytics, quantitative and qualitative surveys, and social
media analysis. These research methods help to assess the impact of political
information on the media audience and identify where to make improvements.
Content analysis has been defined as „any research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics
within text‰ (Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvie, 1966).
•
•
•
Weber (1990) defines content analysis as a „research method that uses a set of
procedures to make valid inferences from text‰.
In media studies, quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods are
usually applied by researchers. Each method has its own merits and demerits.
Therefore, researchers have advocated a combination of the two methods to
overcome the shortcomings of each method.
Analysis
Content analysis
Government
Media
Political information
Qualitative content analysis
Quantitative content analysis
Research techniques
Researchers
Abelson, B. (2012). HI score: Towards a new metric of influence. Harmony
Institute. Retrieved from
https://harmony-institute.org/latest/2012/06/27/hi-score-towards-a-new-
metric-of-influence/
Ashworth, S., & Shotts, K. W. (2010). Does informative media commentary
reduce politiciansÊ incentives to pander? Journal of Public Economics, 94(11),
838 847.
Bennett, W. L. (1996). The politics of illusion. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. New York, NY:
Free Press.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social constructions of reality. New York,
NY: Doubleday Anchor.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. New
York, NY: International Publishers.
Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Lasswell, H. D., Lerner, D., & Pool, I. S. (1952). The comparative study of symbols:
An introduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Louw, P. E. (2010). The media and political process (2nd ed.). London, England:
Sage.
McPhail, T. L. (2002). Global communication: Theories, stakeholders and trends.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Newbold, C., Boyd-Barrett, O., & Van Den Bulck, H. (2002). The media book.
London, England: Arnold.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Fico, F. G. (2005). Analyzing media messages: Using
quantitative content analysis in research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Shaw, D. L., & McCombs, M. E. (1977). The emergence of American political issues:
The agenda-setting function of the press. St Paul, MN: West Pub. Co.
Shoemaker, P., & Reese, S. (1996). Mediating the message: Theories of influences
on mass content. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C., Smith, M. S., & Ogilvie, D. M. (1966). The general
inquirer: A computer approach to content analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Tay, S. S. C. (2000). Democracy and the media in ASEAN and Asia. Media Asia,
27(4), 223 227.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic content analysis (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Define globalisation;
Discuss the impact of globalisation on socio-cultural, political and
economic transformation;
Describe the effect of globalisation on the media system; and
Explain how new media has transformed politics and political
communication.
INTRODUCTION
According to some scholars and observers, globalisation began when people began
to travel across the world from one point to another. Thus, globalisation is not new.
For thousands of years, people and, later, corporations have been buying from
and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk
Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle
Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises
in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation
are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
However, with the advent of information and communications technology (ICT),
rapid globalisation is occurring due to the enabling role of ICT.
9.1 GLOBALISATION
Although the word „globalisation‰ was not coined until the second half of the
twentieth century, the origin of globalisation has been traced back to the period
between 1450 and 1500 AD. This period is referred to as the „mercantilist period‰
and characterised by the development of trade in the quest for commercial empires
to broaden their markets (Amiuwu, 2004; Scholte, 2002; as cited in Ugbam,
Chukwu, & Ogbo, 2014). Propelled by advancements in transportation and
information technology, globalisation has practically shrunk the world into one
global village (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Globalisation is turning everything that is different into one thing
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/502010689686280918/
Globalisation means different things to different people. For some, it creates
positive political, economic and technological progress. Globalisation is a process
of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided
by information technology.
The process has effects on the environment, culture, political systems, economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world. According to Friedman (2000), globalisation is the inexorable
integration of markets, nation states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed
before. The following subtopics will further discuss globalisation and socio-
cultural, political and economic transformation.
9.1.1 Globalisation and Socio-cultural Transformation
Before the advent of globalisation, our societies were mainly agrarian, as in
they were mostly involved in agriculture. Later on, the forces of globalisation
marginalised such types of societies.
Agricultural activities became activities of the few as most of the population are
freed to work in factories, shops and offices (Giddens, 2013). Cities became greatly
populated, but at the same time, emphasised the anonymity of modern life. The
result was the expansion of industrial technology into military as well as civilian
life and this allows the socio-cultural hegemony of the West to expand at the
expense of other cultures.
In discussing the transformation of societies through globalisation, the term
„developing societies‰ is adopted. These societies differ from traditional societies
in three respects: politically they are nation-states; most are undergoing the
experience of urbanisation; and agriculture dominates but as an export crop rather
than for subsistence. Many of these countries continue to suffer worsening poverty
exacerbated by the cost of servicing their debts to the West, but the developing
world is far from homogeneous and also includes the economic „success stories‰
of newly industrialising countries (NICs) such as Brazil, Mexico and South Korea.
The Asian NICs are involved in both traditional industrial production (steel,
shipbuilding) and innovations such as electronics and financial services.
In tracing the development of these different types of society, scholars have been
engaged in the study of social change. Change is difficult to define, as everything
changes all of the time. A change becomes significant when there are alterations in
underlying structures and modifications of basic institutions.
Social theory has failed to produce a convincing mono-causal explanation of social
change, but three main factors that have influenced social change are identified:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cultural factors; The physical environment; and Political organisation.
Technological changes promoted rapid change during the modern era leading to
globalisation. Among the constituents and causes of globalisation is the growth in
information and communications technology, most notably the advent of fibre-
optic cables and communications satellites. The impact of this is uneven, but
everywhere it is on an upward trajectory.
ICT helps in the compression of time and space and accelerates
interconnectedness. In this sphere, transnational corporations (TNCs) contribute
to the globalising dynamics by operating their business across borders, whether
they are Coca-Cola or Colgate-Palmolive. Alongside TNCs, we are introduced to
the „global commodity chain‰, the worldwide networks of labour and production
processes leading to a finished product.
The flow of information on the large array of fresh produce on offer in the
supermarket, and the constant transportation of the goods have created the
concepts of „food miles‰ and „local produce‰ in eco-debates. A second argument
concerns global culture, a social fact maintained and reinforced by television, the
global economy, „citizens of the world‰, transnational organisations and electronic
communications.
According to Ogohi (2014), the social aspect is that globalisation has deeply
influenced the social structure of different societies. Every society used to have its
own unique culture with respect to the language, social norms, morality, civic
sense and other aspects. With the advent of globalisation through the aid of
technology, this special capability to influence millions at the same time has
challenged the social institutions of the society, mainly the family.
A particular society following its style of living without being much influenced by
Western culture is now seen as uncivilised, which is a very cunningly designed
propaganda of the West to inculcate their culture into the rest of the world and
thereby dominate the globe. Culture links us to our historical past. In other words,
it determines a particular way of people's behaviour, ways of acting and ways of
thinking.
Culture also defines the value system, customs, education and knowledge of a
people. Culture is the channel through which knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits are conveyed to members of a
community from generation to generation (Bello, 2001).
Culture consists of the values and rules we live by, our ideas of good and evil, our
language and our religion. However, the socio-cultural phenomenon, which gives
people identity, personality and individuality, has been masked by globalisation.
The hegemonisation of culture by the Western world or rather, by America, is an
obvious attempt to leave the society of the southern countries or developing
countries, without identity, individuality or personality.
The overall effect on us is that we become mindless atoms in the material world.
This perhaps accounts for why some have defined globalisation from a negative
perspective. Aborishade (2002) maintains that globalisation is Western
imperialism, particularly, American imperialism, which seeks to enforce its
hegemony on other nations through threats of economic, political or military
coercion. To him, globalisation does not only deepen inequality between the core
and the periphery nations, it also seeks to wage unparalleled attacks on the rights
and prosperity of poor nations.
On the other hand, culture is very much an elusive term to define, perhaps because
of its wider scope and broad nature. However, what comes to mind while thinking
of culture is values and norms people have which make them live in a particular
way. It is a way of living in a particular community. It is therefore, the sum total
of all things that refer to religion, cultural roots of people, symbols, languages,
songs, stories, celebrations, clothing and dressing, and all expressions of our way
of life. It encompasses food productions, technology, architecture, kinship, the
interpersonal relationships, political and economic systems and all the social
relationships these entail.
One truth about culture is that it is learned. Such learning does not take place
through natural inheritance. It is not genetically transmitted. Rather, it takes place
by a process of absorption from the social environment or through deliberate
instruction, or through the process of socialisation. If culture is learned, it may
follow to say that it can equally be unlearned. If it follows, then, Malaysia, for
example, has a lot to unlearn (those Western values that are alien and destructive
to the Malaysian culture) from the contact with the West. However, this does not
suggest that Malaysia, for example, has nothing good to learn from the West.
Indeed, there are many.
Another truth about culture is that it is dynamic. Culture is never static. Every now
and then we are being transformed culturally. It changes exactly the same way as
human beings change. This transformation is gradual and not sudden or abrupt.
According to Fridah (1998), culture is a continuous process of change but in spite
of the change, culture continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity,
continuity, and security and binds society together.
The dynamism of culture casts doubt on the possibility of a global culture. Part of
this dynamism is that each culture has its own personality. The fact that we are all
humans does not mean that we are all the same. To ignore this would mean to
destroy God's own beautiful rainbow made from the many colours of cultural
diversity. But central to globalisation is the idea of a global culture (Guillen, 2001).
However, there are only a few scholars who accept that a global culture is in the
making. A „culture ideology of consumerism‰ driven by symbols, images and
aesthetics of lifestyles and self-image has spread throughout the world and is
having some momentous effects including standardisation of tastes and desires
(Guillen, 2001; Leslie, 1991) which goes a long way to affect culture.
The combination of progressively advanced technology and complex social
structure, which are sustained by the ideas of change as desirable progress,
enhances social change as being one of the major impacts of globalisation. The
social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on the life
and work of people, families and societies. There are clearly other social aspects of
globalisation beyond the employment, working dimensions, income, and social
protection.
Globalisation is seen therefore, as the new coloniser, insensitively spreading
particular views of the world into developing nations in the mistaken belief that
this is actually helping people. The potential power of globalisation to spread
dominant ideologies and to crush emerging structures, whether wittingly or
unwittingly, is the main cause of concern.
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation
The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. Within the
internal and domestic politics of countries, the advent of globalisation has left an
unprecedented mark. The conduct of election campaigns, for example, has a wide
reaching effect, since by using online campaign, messages travel across national
borders. Using online campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has
become the norm.
Another political development is the spread of institutions of government that do
not match national boundaries, such as the European Union, the United Nations
and a tranche of non-governmental bodies. The spread of information across
borders does not just destabilise regimes, as in Tiananmen Square or Berlin; it also
creates international awareness, for example, through pictures from war zones.
The global outlook that follows from this leads some to look for referents both
above and below the nation-state for identities or allegiances.
The collapse of the Soviet „bloc‰ reintegrated a large number of countries into the
trading community. As global communications overrode ideological control of the
state media, one could argue that globalisation was both cause and consequence
of the break-up of Soviet hegemony.
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation
Gone are the days when countries trade and do business within a particular
locality or region. Come globalisation, no country is an island and countries of the
world trade among themselves. With the advancements in transportation and
telecommunication facilities, distance is no longer a hurdle. Advancement in
information and communication technology has further brought an impact on
globalisation. With the advent of the electronic economy, not only is physical
capital more mobile between countries but financial capital can also flow and ebb
within seconds on a computer screen. Hence, we are living in a world which has
experienced economic transformation more than ever before.
Globalisation has changed situations in such a manner that power of state is
determined by the power of the firm. If the goal of globalisation is a more liberal
exchange of goods, services, labour, thoughts etc., which in later stages would
make the world uniform, then there would be no space for identity. Globalisation
is not a debate about divergence or convergence, but a dialectical process which
can both integrate and fragment, while creating both winners and losers, especially
in the economic arena.
In line with globalisation, countries must allow the free and unselective operations
of transnational corporations in their economies; open their economies freely and
indiscriminately to imports and concentrate on exporting what they are supposed
to be good at; reduce the role of governments in the economy to that of supporting
the market and private enterprise; and leave the determination of prices of goods,
currencies, labour as well as the allocation of resources to the operation of the
market, which is called the „free-market‰ or „laissez faire‰ economy.
In the light of the above, one can argue that, globalisation is primarily not a neutral
process driven by laws and factors of development, such as technology, and
operating outside of human control and agency. Rather, it is a conscious
programme of restructuring international economic and political relations in line
with a particular set of interests (the profit motivations of businesses, especially
the transnational corporations of the advanced industrial countries) and vision
(the belief in the primacy of the free market and of private enterprise in all
processes of human development) (Fridah, 1998).
ACTIVITY 9.1
Explain the impact of globalisation on the socio-cultural, political and
economic transformation in your country.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What do you understand by the term globalisation?
9.2 GLOBALISATION AND THE MEDIA SYSTEM
Before the 1990s, most mainstream media belonged to the state and focussed
mostly on national issues. However, from the 1990s most communication media
have become progressively global, reaching the global audience. The international
flows of information have been assisted by the development of global capitalism,
new technologies and the increasing commercialisation of global television, which
have occurred as a result of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries
in Europe and the US, facilitating the proliferation of cable and satellite channels
(Matos, 2012).
Early advancement in globalisation of communication was facilitated by the
development of technologies capable of transmitting messages via electromagnetic
news, marking a turning point in advancing the globalisation of communications.
This gave birth to international news agencies such as Reuters in the 19th century
which paved the way for the beginning of a global system of codification.
It was in the 1960s, with the launch of the first geo-stationary communication
satellite, that transmission became fully global, thus making the globalisation of
communications a unique phenomenon of the 20th century (Thompson, 1995).
News agencies are seen as crucial to the globalisation thesis as they are closely tied
to the modernisation of the West and the expansion of communication media since
their appearance in the mid-19th century. They have an important role to play.
International news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, United Press
International and Agence France-Presse (AFP) are seen by media scholars as
having contributed to a global agenda and creating perceptions of the South
(developing countries) as being a place of corruption, political instability due to
government overthrow and disaster for Western audiences.
These four agencies have remained key players that dominate the global
dissemination of news and information, with many newspapers and other media
organisations across the world depending on them for international news.
The advent of the Internet has further made the media very impactful, whereby
news agencies and the press have an online presence thereby furthering the
globalisation agenda of the media system. A media house or press that has no
online presence would be left behind. This is obvious all around us. The media
system in Malaysia also has an online presence making it global.
9.3
NEW MEDIA AND POLITICS
With the advent of new media, the way politics is conducted has been largely
affected. This has brought a new dimension to the way political communication is
done. The new media has permeated the domain of political communication for
about a decade now. A classical case was the use of new media in politics during
the Obama campaign back in 2008. In Malaysia, the use of new media in politics
occurred during roughly the same period, during the 12th General Elections (Ali
Salman & Mohd Safar Hasim, 2011). However, the Obama campaign had a
tremendous impact on the electorate, especially the millennial generation when
compared with the Malaysian scenario. Yet the impact on the Malaysian electorate
cannot be discounted.
On 4 November 2008, more than 12 million young Americans selected the person
who made them believe in their abilities to bring about change, the person who
gave them hope, and the person who made them feel united. It was Barack Obama
who won the election and it was young people who were pivotal in helping him
win. The Obama campaign itself was said to draw lessons and inspirations from
the new media tools in the Howard Dean primary campaign in 2004.
Prior to the Obama campaign, Howard Dean was the first to validate the power
of online communities for politics in the new media era. As Dean pointed out,
he himself learned that politics has to respond to popular demand and move
away from traditional concepts. „You have to build community, not just
enable fundraising. You need to listen, be willing to lead and be willing to be
decentralised,‰ he said (Teachout & Steerman, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
As his campaign was going on, Dean’s team was turning the one-way political
communication path into a two-way street, benefiting on various levels from
citizens desire to act. A lot of ideas for the Dean campaign came from the
grassroots.
In the new media environment, political communication is more effective when
it is two-way, and with a lot of ideas stemming from bottom to top. Similarly,
Obama’s campaign was engineered as a bottom-up campaign and so was his
communication strategy (Tumulty, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010). Dean was
the first to tell people: „You have the Power.‰ Obama adapted Dean’s strategy
by addressing the nation with the words „Yes, We Can.‰ By comparison, both
Clinton’s and McCain’s communication strategies followed top-down schemes
(Lopez-Ayala, 2008; Feltz, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
In the Malaysian context, the run up to the 2008 General Elections saw the
opposition, more than Barisan Nasional (BN), using blogs to attract young voters
in particular. This strategy paid off as for the first time in a General Elections, a
blogger turned politician from the opposition won a seat in parliament. This took
the ruling BN by surprise as they were caught off guard (Ali Salman & Mohd Safar
Hasim, 2011). From this development, the political landscape began to change as
a result of the increasing use of new media in politics.
Following the events of 2008, the use of new media in politics became the norm
and in 2013, the Malaysian General Elections was dubbed the social media
elections. As distinct from the 2008 General Elections, where blogs were mainly
used, the 2013 elections saw the use of social media platforms like Facebook and
twitter.
The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape playing an
important role in political communication. Those politicians who are ardent in
using new media stand to benefit in their political communication and campaigns
while those who are still sceptical about social media stand to lose.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain how globalisation affects the media system.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe how new media has changed the political landscape and
political communication. Support your answers with examples.
•
Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by
international trade and investment, and aided by information technology.
Culture is a continuous process of change but in spite of the change, culture
continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity, continuity, and
security and binds society together.
The social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on
the life and work of people, families and societies.
The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. The conduct
of election campaigns, for example, has a wide reaching effect, since by using
online campaigns, messages travel across national borders. Using online
campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has become the norm.
•
•
The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape.
Politicians who are ardent in using new media stand to gain lots of benefits in
their political communication and campaigns, while those who are sceptical
about social media stand to lose.
Developing societies
Economic transformation
Electromagnetic news
Global culture
Global village
Globalisation
Homogeneous
Industrial technology
Information technology
Integration
Interaction
International trade and investment
Mainstream media
Newly industrialising countries (NICs)
Political communication
Political transformation
Social change
Social media
Socio-cultural hegemony
Socio-cultural transformation
Southern or developing countries
Traditional societies
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
Aborishade, F. (2002). Effects of globalization on social and labour practices
in privatized enterprises in Nigeria. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Centre for
Advanced Social Sciences.
Aida Idris. (2015). Globalisation and socio-economic development in Malaysia:
Wither small businesses? Asian Journal of Business and Accounting, 5(1),
109 127.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
148 TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION
Alexandrova, E. (2010). Using new media effectively: An analysis of Barack
Obama’s election campaign aimed at young Americans (Masters thesis,
Fordham University). Retrieved from
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Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Discuss why the media are called the king makers in political
information;
Identify the methods and evaluation processes used in the study of
media and politics;
Explain how technological developments have affected the
relationship between media and politics;
Describe media content analysis; and
Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative content analysis.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the relationship between media and politics, research
methods and evaluation processes. As you go through the topic, you should
be able to undertake the process of conducting an impact study of political
information in the media on the audience. This topic describes the evaluation
process and identifies the two main types of content analysis. You will also look at
the value of content analysis in political communication.
In a democratic society, media is used for the exchange of ideas and opinions, by
both those in power and the general public. The media will continue to be the
main source of information for the citizens in any democratic society both in the
developed and developing countries.
The mass media has a strong influence on politics, and could shape public opinion.
Importantly, the media should fulfil its political role as a means of disseminating
unbiased information, so that the general public could make their own political
choices, and therefore participate in the national discourse that affects their lives.
In a true democratic society, the media helps to inform the general public and also
acts as a watchdog to the government. Ideally, the mass media should make the
political system more open and „transparent‰ by creating an equal playing field
both for the politicians and the people to participate in political decisions.
10.1
POLITICS
Politics could be defined as a decision-making process and effort to attain decision-
making positions and resources that could be used to further oneÊs own political
interest (Louw, 2010). For one to gain and retain political power, there has to be
some element of control or authority.
In a liberal democratic society, politicians normally gain access to power through
election. This is the reason why politicians and political parties will always need
the media to advertise their party manifestos and highlight their political agendas
in order to encourage large numbers of people to vote for them.
Successful and impressive media management could enhance the aura of
politicians and help them gain access to parliament and government, where
policies and power are executed.
10.2 IMPACT STUDY OF POLITICAL
INFORMATION IN THE MEDIA
Media is the most important cultural resource for politicians and political parties.
As a key political „king maker‰, the media discourses legitimise or de-legitimise
hierarchies of positions.
Technological development has drastically changed the relationship between
media and politics. With the rise of the Internet since the 1980s and 1990s, social
media now virtually involves almost everybody in society whether regular
citizens, activists, software providers, telecommunications firms, non-government
and government organisations. In the new media environment, there are different
social network services and also blogs which have had significant impact on
present day society. The public is now actively aware of what is happening daily
in the political circle.
The new media has allowed the public more access to political news, thereby
avoiding the usual barriers they normally encounter, such as, control of publishers,
editors and journalists in the traditional media (McPhail, 2002). However, Tay
(2000) is of the opinion that even with the new media, many Asian governments
minimise or control the role of media as watchdog, and as an independent check-
and-balance on the government of the day. In a book titled The Emergence of
American Political Issues, Shaw and McCombs (1977) wrote: „The most significant
effect of the media was its ability to organise our world for us. The news media are
stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.
10.2.1
Types of Methods
Most studies on the impact of political information in the media apply focus
group methods, in-depth-interviews, online analytics, quantitative, and qualitative
research methods, surveys and social media analysis. Through this combination
of methodological approaches, media experts could gain a comprehensive
understanding on the beliefs, attitudes and political beliefs of the audience.
In a bid to understand the impact of political information in the media on their
audience, the Harmony Institute developed „HI score,‰ which is a system to
quantify or assess how media impact influences political beliefs of the people
during electioneering campaigns (Abelson, 2012). An initial attempt at generating
HI scores combined data from Twitter, news media, and Google searches. As the
test set, the Harmony Institute selected the last three years of Oscar-nominated
documentary films. This list provided comparable examples and allowed the
researchers to expand on some of their past work. Through a trial-and-error
process, they arrived at a score of 1 to 100 (the higher the better) that estimates the
influence of a documentary film over time (Abelson, 2012).
10.2.2
Evaluation Process
Mass media can facilitate short-term, intermediate, and long-term effects on their
audiences. The short-term effects include the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Exposing audiences to political information;
Creating awareness and knowledge;
Altering out-dated or incorrect knowledge; and
Enhancing audience recall of particular advertisements or public service
announcements, promotions, or programme names.
The intermediate effects include behavioural changes and perceptions of social
norms. Long-term effects incorporate all of the above, together with focused
restructuring of perceived social norms, and maintenance of behavioural change.
Iyengar (1991) evaluates the effects of news coverage on public opinion and
political choice, saying that „The framing of issues by television forms the way the
society understands the causes and the solutions to central political problems‰.
Shaw and McCombs (1977) studied the agenda-setting capacity of the news media
in American presidential elections and present the results in their book The
Emergence of American Political Issues.
10.2.3
The Usage and Function of Impact Analysis
The analysis of more than 30,000 news features of the Danish government in power
aired over the Danish radio station for the past 20 years was conducted by teams
of social scientists. They found that critical coverage in the media could lead to a
decline in the public ratings of a government. The study does not agree with the
theory that having more media coverage is always good for the government.
The study by Shotts and Ashworth (2010) from the University of Chicago found
that when you have a healthy media, it would make those holding political
positions less likely to engage in activities that could tarnish their image. The
researchers constructed a theoretical model in their study using well-established
principles of game theory. They found that if the media always produced
commentaries on policy choices, there would be less incentive for politicians to
pander since voters would know what policies were in their interest. This freedom
allows politicians to avoid pandering and to take actions that are good for the
voters without fear of being criticised by the media.
Most journalists operate under the belief that when it comes to political issues, only
bad news is worth reporting. Therefore, citizens are hardly treated to stories about
how political institutions are functional or how government officials are admirable
public servants. Rather, the news media would always have the tendency to
highlight political misunderstanding, malfeasance, and scandals among party
members (Bennett, 1996).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1.
2.
Why are the media called „king makers‰ in political information?
What are the methods used to assess the impact of political
information on the audience?
ACTIVITY 10.1
How have technological developments affected the relationships
between media and politics? Discuss this question in the context of the
Malaysian politics. Share your findings in the online forum.
10.3
CONTENT ANALYSIS
The generally accepted definition of content analysis was provided by Berelson
(1952), who described it as a „research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication‰.
However, this definition was found wanting among researchers because the word
„objective‰ had raised some argument from researchers, such as Berger and
Luckman (1967). In their classic study on The Social Construction of Reality, Berger
and Luckman (1967) state that even the most scientific methods of social research
cannot really produce objective results. With regard to media content, they argue
that media texts are always open to different interpretations from researchers and
that its analysis could not be said to be objective.
Other definitions of content analysis include those listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Definitions of Content Analysis
Source: Stone, Dunphy, Smith and Ogilvie (1966)
Weber (1990) Lasswell, Lerner and Pool (1952)
Definition
Content analysis is any research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying
specified characteristics within text.
Content analysis is a research method that uses a set of
procedures to makes valid inferences from text.
• Content analysis operates on the view that verbal
behaviour is a form of human behaviour, that the flow of
symbols is a part of the flow of events, and that the
communication process is an aspect of the historical
process.
• Content analysis is a technique which aims at describing,
with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, what
is said on a given subject in a given place at a given time.
In 1948, Lasswell (as cited in Shoemaker & Reese, 1996) defined media content
analysis as „Who says what, through which channel, to whom, with what effect‰.
Berelson (1952) lists out the main purposes of content analysis as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
To predict the effects of content on the intended audience;
To make inferences about audiences of content;
To make inferences about producers of content; and
To describe characteristics of message contents.
During the 1920s and 1930s, media content analysis became a very popular
research methodology for the investigation of movies.
10.3.1
The Value of Content Analysis to the Political Process
In political content analysis, the process should apply systematic research
techniques and a researcher should strive for objectivity, validity as well as
reliability. A key component in content analysis is the coding book or coding list,
that is, a list of all the variables, or the units of analysis to be researched.
The value of content analysis to the political process is that it should contain
examination of multiple variables (multivariable). In content analysis, the primary
units (variables) are messages expressed as words or phrases. In the coding list, all
the messages which are considered to be relevant in the study are listed, whether
they are negative or positive.
The coding list may also include some categories of issues, places or topics and
may also seek to identify important names of certain sources like individuals and
organisations relevant to issues in the messages to be analysed.
10.3.2
Types of Content Analysis
There are various types of content analysis, such as the following:
(a)
Quantitative Content Analysis
In quantitative content analysis, data are usually determined by the key
contents, circulation of media, audience reach and also the frequencies of
units of analysis. Quantitative content analysis considers the media form,
such as visual media and television. Neuendorf (2002) is of the view that
what is important in content analysis is both content form and characteristics.
Neuendorf (2002) argues that media content is quantitative in nature only,
whereas Shoemaker and Reese (1996) say that it is a good idea to apply a
combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to achieve
a balanced result. According to these researchers, “behavioural content
analysis is not necessarily conducted using quantitative or numerical
techniques but the two (quantitative and qualitative) tend to go together”
(Shoemaker & Reese, 1996). They further state that humanistic content
analysis study moves towards quantitative analysis. They say that reducing
large amounts of text to quantitative data does not provide a complete
picture of meaning and contextual codes, since text may contain many other
forms of emphasis besides sheer repetition.
(b)
Qualitative Content Analysis
Qualitative content analysis is a method that examines the relationship
between text and meaning. It recognises that media texts are polysemic, in
other words, that it is open to different meanings to a lot of readers. This
method of research analysis pays more attention to the audience, media and
contextual factors and not just simply the text.
It could therefore be concluded that qualitative content analysis relies
significantly on the researchersÊ „readings‰ and interpretations of the media
text. This type of media research is very intensive and time consuming. This
is the reason qualitative content analysis tends to use a small sample size and
this has resulted in its being criticised by some researchers as not being
scientific and being unreliable.
It could be said that quantitative content analysis is able to conform to certain
levels of scientific analysis, can produce reliable findings and is positivist in
nature. This is not the same with qualitative content analysis, which is
relatively difficult and unable to give a reliable and scientific result. Even
with the shortcomings of qualitative analysis, its text contents are important
and help to reveal a thick description of words and their deeper meanings
and also the likely interpretation of action. However, it is good to combine
the two methods to overcome any shortcomings.
10.4
GENERAL METHODS AND PROCESS OF
CONTENT ANALYSIS
There are several studies that discuss the general methods and process of content
analysis such as those conducted by Krippendorff (2004), Neuendorf (2002) and
Riffe, Lacy and Fico (2005). Content analyses can be conducted via human or
computer analysis. Both human and computer content analysis use the same basic
method they require conceptual, reliable categories, and a reasonable sample size
for the analysis.
However, these two methods differ in some areas. For example, computer content
analysis requires computer files of sample texts for analysis while in human
analysis, physical texts are read and coded by humans (trained researchers).
Computer software is then used to analyse the results just like in regular survey
research.
Examples of computer programs that are most often used at this stage for database
and storage are SPSS, for statistical analysis and Excel, for the tabulation of data
and calculations. The Excel program is used to generate graphic programs and
charts. Many social researchers and authors such as Newbold, Boyd-Barrett and
Van Den Bulck (2002) have claimed that computer media content analysis is
irrelevant, and are of the view that this should be done manually.
When content analysis is conducted in different languages and across cultures,
there is mostly likely the problem of machine coding. This is because most of the
automated coding systems work only with English texts, and when computer
translations are used, they may not be reliable except for basic interpretation.
On the other hand, when human coding is used, the software applied in storing
the data and doing the analysis is not that significant to the research. Hence, a very
good reliable program needs to be used. What is more important at that stage is
the methodology applied. Likewise, the training of the coders is important to
ensure that the content analysis is done in accordance with strict criteria.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1.
2.
3.
What is media content analysis?
Discuss the differences between quantitative and qualitative
content analysis.
Discuss human versus computer content analysis.
•
In a democratic society, the media will continue to be a watchdog to the
government in power. Also, there is a need to make the mass media open and
transparent to people, including politicians, to enable participation in the
political decisions process.
Technological developments in the 1980s and 1990s drastically changed the
relationship between media and politics. With the advent of the Internet
and social media, almost everybody can get virtually involved in political
discourse. The „king makers‰ in media and political communication are
therefore the mass media.
To understand the impact of political information in the media on their
audience, researchers usually conduct focus group studies, in-depth-
interviews, online analytics, quantitative and qualitative surveys, and social
media analysis. These research methods help to assess the impact of political
information on the media audience and identify where to make improvements.
Content analysis has been defined as „any research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics
within text‰ (Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvie, 1966).
•
•
•
Weber (1990) defines content analysis as a „research method that uses a set of
procedures to make valid inferences from text‰.
In media studies, quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods are
usually applied by researchers. Each method has its own merits and demerits.
Therefore, researchers have advocated a combination of the two methods to
overcome the shortcomings of each method.
Analysis
Content analysis
Government
Media
Political information
Qualitative content analysis
Quantitative content analysis
Research techniques
Researchers
Abelson, B. (2012). HI score: Towards a new metric of influence. Harmony
Institute. Retrieved from
https://harmony-institute.org/latest/2012/06/27/hi-score-towards-a-new-
metric-of-influence/
Ashworth, S., & Shotts, K. W. (2010). Does informative media commentary
reduce politiciansÊ incentives to pander? Journal of Public Economics, 94(11),
838 847.
Bennett, W. L. (1996). The politics of illusion. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. New York, NY:
Free Press.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social constructions of reality. New York,
NY: Doubleday Anchor.
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. New
York, NY: International Publishers.
Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Lasswell, H. D., Lerner, D., & Pool, I. S. (1952). The comparative study of symbols:
An introduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Louw, P. E. (2010). The media and political process (2nd ed.). London, England:
Sage.
McPhail, T. L. (2002). Global communication: Theories, stakeholders and trends.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Newbold, C., Boyd-Barrett, O., & Van Den Bulck, H. (2002). The media book.
London, England: Arnold.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Fico, F. G. (2005). Analyzing media messages: Using
quantitative content analysis in research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Shaw, D. L., & McCombs, M. E. (1977). The emergence of American political issues:
The agenda-setting function of the press. St Paul, MN: West Pub. Co.
Shoemaker, P., & Reese, S. (1996). Mediating the message: Theories of influences
on mass content. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C., Smith, M. S., & Ogilvie, D. M. (1966). The general
inquirer: A computer approach to content analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Tay, S. S. C. (2000). Democracy and the media in ASEAN and Asia. Media Asia,
27(4), 223 227.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic content analysis (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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