3 OUMH1203 Topic 1 Introduction to Communication

3 OUMH1203 Topic 1 Introduction to Communication. 

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by the word Ñcommunicationâ in general;
2. Identify the main elements in the communication process;
3. Differentiate between oral and written communication;
4. Highlight some basic tips on writing; and
5. List the common pitfalls to avoid in written communication. 

INTRODUCTION
This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the
main elements in the communication process. It also highlights the importance of writing clear, positive messages and offers you some basic tips and guidelines on this form of communication so that you may become more proficient in the kind of writing needed at home as well as in the college and workplace. You will also learn about some of the common pitfalls which may impede the effectiveness of written communication.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this skill further. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. 

1.1.1 Elements in Communication
Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while
others fail to get their message across? What are the elements that must be
present in the communication process before it can be successful and effective? 

Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or
exchanging information, ideas and opinions so that the message is completely
understood by both parties. Look at Figure 1.1 below. The illustration shows
clearly that in a communication process, there must be a sender who speaks or
sends a message, and a receiver who listens or receives the message. 

The sender sends a message with a certain intention in mind. The receiver of the message tries to understand and interpret the message sent. He then gives
feedback to the original sender, who in turn interprets the feedback. This process, repeated continuously, constitutes communication. 

Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process ñ a
sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context. There is both a speakers intention to convey a messageand a listener s reception of what has been said. Thus, listening skills are just as important as speaking skills in order for communication to be effective. 

This means that if you want to get your message across accurately, you need to consider these three things:
(a) The message;
(b) The audience or receiver; and
(c) How the message is likely to be received. 

A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender
and the receiver perceive and understand it in the same way. If this does not
happen, then there may be a breakdown in communication, which may
ultimately stand in the way of you realising your goals, either personally or
professionally. 

ACTIVITY 1.1
The meaning of communication lies in the way that it is received.
Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss with your friends
during the next tutorial session. 

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication
As mentioned earlier, effective communication is a two-way process but there are a number of factors which may disrupt this process and affect the overall
interpretation and understanding of what was communicated. Myriad problems
can pop up at different stages of the communication process. These can relate to any of the elements involved ñ the sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback and context. It is therefore important to understand some of the factors that affect communication so that you can try to get your message across with minimal misunderstanding and confusion.
Below are some possible problem areas that may turn out to to be barriers to
effective communication:

(a) Status/Role
The sender and receiver of a message may be of equal status within a
hierarchy (e.g. managers in an organisation) or they may be at different
levels (e.g. manager/employee, lecturer/student, business owner/clients).
This difference in status sometimes affects the effectiveness of the
communication process.

(b) Cultural Differences
Cultural differences, both within or outside the organisation (for example,
inter-departmental dealings and communication with outside organisations
or ethnic minorities) may impede the communication process. 


(c) Choice of Communication Channels
 Before you choose your communication channel, you should ask yourself
whether the channel is appropriate for a particular purpose and the
person/receiver you have in mind. Sending messages via inappropriate
channels can send out wrong signals and end up creating confusion.

(d) Length of Communication
 The length of the message also affects the communication process. You
need to be sure that it serves the purpose and is appropriate for the
receiver. Is the message too long or too brief? 

(e) Use of Language
 Poor choice of words or weak sentence structure also hampers
communication. The same goes for inappropriate punctuation. The two
sentences below illustrate clearly how different placement of punctuation
can change the entire meaning of a sentence: 

Woman, without her, man is nothing.
Woman, without her man, is nothing. 

(f) Disabilities
 Disabilities such as impaired sight, dyslexia and poor mental health can
also be barriers to good communication, and should be taken into
consideration when evaluating the effectiveness of the communication
process. You may need to use hearing aids, sign language, magnifying
systems, and symbols to alleviate problems caused by disabilities.
(g) Known or Unknown Receiver
 Whether the receiver is known or unknown to you also plays a major role
in determining the effectiveness of your communication. A known receiver
may be better able to understand your message despite having insufficient
information as both of you probably have common experiences and a
shared schemata. An unknown receiver, on the other hand, may require
more information and time to decode the message.
(h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities
 Sometimes, the method of communication needs to take into consideration the
receiver s personality traits, age and preferred style. The elderly and children,
for example, have different communication needs and preferences when
compared to young adults. Is the receiver of your message a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic sort of person? How do you think they will react to your
message? Can you adapt your communication style to suit theirs? 

(i) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction
 Our surroundings can sometimes pose as barriers to effective communication.
A noisy place (a party, for instance) usually puts a strain on oral
communication as both the sender and the receiver need to put extra effort to
get the message across and ensure that it is understood clearly and correctly.
(j) Clarity of Message
 Is the message conveyed in a clear or ambiguous manner?
(k) Lack of Feedback
 Feedback is important as it enables confirmation of understanding to be
made by both parties. The lack of feedback can sometimes create problems
as it can lead to uncertainty and confusion. 

ACTIVITY 1.2
Your father is not keen on your decision to study medicine in the United
Kingdom. How can you persuade him, bearing in mind the barriers to
communication that you might encounter? 

When choosing the most appropriate channel of communication, you should
heed the following:
(a) Consider all aspects of the communication process (interpretation,
understanding, feedback).
(b) Think carefully about possible barriers.
(c) Evaluate the complexity of the message and decide how it might be best
conveyed.
(d) Ask yourself these questions:
(i) Who? ñ Characteristics of the receiver(s).
(ii) Why? ñ Purpose of the communication.
(iii) What? ñ Content of the message.
(iv) How? ñ Oral, written, visual or a combination of all three.
(v) Where? ñ Location of the meeting.
(vi) When? ñ Timing/time limit/expected response time. 

(e) Determine whether you are meeting or writing to the people concerned. Is
the communication via face-to-face interaction, telephone, letter, e-mail,
memo or a report?
(f) Decisions about the most appropriate channel of communication also
depend on factors such as cost, time, confidentiality, convention, urgency
and whether written documentation is required. 

1.2 DEFINING WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
As mentioned earlier, communication can be oral or in written form. What is the difference between these two main types of communication?
Oral communication involves conveying ideas, thoughts or information via a
spoken language. In written communication, however, information is exchanged
using written symbols, that is, via words and sentences. Written communication is the sharing and exchanging of written symbols between individuals or groups.
It is also the presentation of ideas in a coherent manner in written form.
Written communication can take place via:
(a) Letters;
(b) Faxes;
(c) Email;
(d) Reports;
(e) Memos; and
(f) Advertisements.
You can acquire good writing skills through extensive reading, note-taking and listening. In order to communicate effectively via writing, you need to have a sound grounding in grammar and vocabulary so that you can present ideas, together with supporting details, in a unified and coherent manner. 

1.3 WHY WRITTEN COMMUNICATION?
The next question that arises is: "Why do we need to communicate in written
form? Why is there a need to document our work or keep written records?" The
answers to these questions are many and varied. 

For one thing, once you put something into writing, the message is there for
posterity, so that others can read it again and again, whenever they like. This is especially useful for research purposes where you need to build up on existing pools of knowledge. 

Writing also means that information can be stored and transferred from
individual to individual and group to group without relying on memory.
Through the written word, records can exist independently of the writer.
The written document also helps you to keep abreast of development in whatever project you are involved in as it provides an avenue not only for the sharing of ideas or opinions, but also for the presenting and defending of viewpoints.
Written communication can also serve as a form of acknowledgement ñ proof
that something has been done in case verification is needed later.
Sometimes, documenting work helps to clarify thoughts and thinking processes
as it allows you to mull over things slowly, at your own pace. It is "thinking made public". 

So, what must be documented? Any idea, logic, argument or phraseology derived
from an outside source must be documented. In academic writing, you must give
credit for all borrowed materials, for example, quotations, references, information from primary and secondary sources, facts, data, statistics, opinions, ideas and interpretations which you have gathered from your reading and research.
Such material must be acknowledged and cited, irrespective of whether you
have paraphrased, summarised or quoted directly. The only exception is what
is loosely termed "general knowledge" or "common knowledge", which is
information or ideas generally known and accepted by everyone, including the
writer and the audience. You must cite and document all ideas and arguments borrowed from an outside source. 

ACTIVITY 1.3 Why do you think formal work should always be documented?

1.4 TIPS ON WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 

We all use language to communicate, express ourselves, get our ideas across
and connect with the person to whom we are speaking. When a relationship
is working, the act of communication seems to flow relatively effortlessly.
When a relationship is deteriorating, the act of communicating can be as
frustrating as climbing a hill of sand.
--- Chip Rose 

As the above quote shows, writing is a complex process. There is no short cut to being a good writer. If you want to write well, you need to first of all, read extensively. You must read not just books on writing but magazines, websites, newspapers, newsletters and others ñ anything that you can get your hands on. Do not be overly concerned with grammar and spelling when you first start out.
You can always fix those later. What is important is to put your thoughts down on paper first. The next section will outline some tips and guidelines to help you get started.
1.4.1 The Writing Process
Successful written communication requires careful thought and planning. It
should contain comprehensive information about a specific subject and yet be
clear, correct and easy to read.
A well-written piece of work requires you to pay attention to the following three
stages in the writing process:
 Planning;
 Writing; and
 Editing.
(a)Planning
 To write a good report, you need to plan what you want to say. After you
have decided on what you want to say, list down all the points and arrange
them in a logical and suitable sequence. This approach will ensure the
clarity of your message and help you to avoid omitting relevant details.

(b) Writing
 The writing stage requires careful planning. It includes a pre-writing stage
where you gather all the information necessary to ensure that there is
substance to your writing. Start writing in simple and plain English and
move from something concrete to something more abstract and expressive.
In order to improve your writing skills, you need to practise writing in the
target language everyday until you are able to express yourself clearly
and meet the needs of your reader. Once you start writing, the words,
sentences, paragraphs and lay-outs become writing tools which you can use
to convey your message concisely, courteously, and confidently.
Sebranek, Meyer and Kemper (1996) summed it up in a nutshell when they
say that writing is like basketball and juggling, (it) is not a God-given mysterious talent given only to a chosen few but, rather, a skill that gets better with practice, practice that involves increased challenges and,
therefore, risk.

Adopt a plain, straightforward style when writing as this makes your work
easy to understand and reduces the chances of misunderstanding arising
from ambiguity.

(c) Editing
 The third stage in the writing process is editing. It is crucial to check for grammatical errors and ensure that there is smooth language flow. The
longer the report, the more editing is usually required. It can be useful to
get someone else to read through the written piece for you.
1.4.2 Pitfalls to Avoid
Basically, there are four types of errors that you must try to avoid in written communication, as shown in Figure 1.2.

(a) Confusing Language
 Confusing language refers to words that mislead the reader and cause
communication breakdown. It may also result in barriers being erected
between the writer and the reader. Avoid words which are ambiguous,
bombastic, vague, sexist, exaggerated, inflated and archaic. Remember to
write in plain, good English. 

Figure 1.2: Common errors in writing
(b) Verbosity
 Verbosity means the use of too many words, so much so that they interfere
with understanding. If verbosity persists, it may antagonise, confuse, and
bore the reader.
 Check out the examples below:
(i) Adnin was the winner! (OK)
 Adnin won! (Better)
(ii) The rugby ball flew all the way up, over to the centre field. (OK)
The rugby ball sailed to the centre field. (Better)
(iii) The stability and quality of our financial performance will be
developed through the profitable execution of our existing business,
as well as the acquisition or development of new businesses. (Too
long, too wordy, passive voice.)

 We will improve our financial performance not only by executing our
existing business more profitably but by acquiring or developing new
businesses. (Better, shorter, active voice.) 

ACTIVITY 1.4 In writing, why do you think it is better to omit needless words?
Discuss. 

(c) Poor Sentence Structure
 Poor sentence structure often leads to fragmented writing and choppy
sentences that impede understanding. Try to keep your sentence(s) short
and concise to ensure that they are correct, logical and easy to understand.
Word order is important for meaning. Remember that words should be
structured in such a way that those which precede should be in accordance
with those that follow. 

ACTIVITY 1.5 The following examples have misplaced modifiers*. Re-order the words to make them acceptable, presentable and grammatically correct.
 For sale. Antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and large
drawers.
 Enraged cow injures farmer with an axe.
(Ratner, B. D., 2004)
(*A modifier is an adjective or adverb that changes the meaning of a noun
or verb. It is an optional element in a sentence.)

(d) Information Overload
 Information overload means giving so much information till you feel
overwhelmed and confused. This may cause frustration and cast doubts on
the writer s credibility. Therefore, as a writer, you must decide on the type
of information required and present this to produce a clear, concise and
relevant piece of written work. 

ACTIVITY 1.6 Tell me and I'll forget.
Show me and I may not remember.
Involve me and I'll understand.
In your opinion, how does this saying relate to the art of written
communication? 

1.5 CHALLENGES IN WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
Although some people are intimidated by writing, there are times when writing
is perceived as the best way to communicate and to get your message across.
Some people consider written communication to be more concrete and Ñsolidâ, as there is less room for errors and mistakes when compared with other forms of communication like oral communication.

1.5.1 New Technologies
Written communication, however, poses challenges such as spelling, grammar,
punctuation, style of writing, and actual wording. Thankfully, today s
technology makes writing memos, reports, letters, and proposals a breeze by
providing tools that can check and even correct misspelt words and incorrect
grammar.
Unfortunately, these tools are not foolproof and will require your attention, thus making knowledge in this area important. Currently, you can even send
messages electronically via e-mails or networkingtechnologies such as SMS.
Irrespective of the form that written communication takes, you need to adhere to certain accepted norms when communicating; otherwise, others might not be
able, or want to, communicate with you.

1.5.2 When Others Fail to Respond
In order to get messages conveyed effectively, you must understand what your
message is, who you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You
must also be able to carefully consider the circumstances surrounding your
communication such as the situation, context, culture, and whether it is formal or
informal.
Sometimes, people may not respond to your communication for the following
reasons:
(a) Their own poor writing skills (for example, language deficiencies).
(b) Too much information in the text/message.
(c) Too many grammatical errors and mistakes.
(d) Barriers between the sender and receiver (cultural, status, role).
(e) Message is not clear or precise. 
(f) Wrong choice of delivery channel/ format.
(g) Past experiences (e.g. treatment received).
(h) Documents not structured, messy or not laid out well. 

ACTIVITY 1.7 Think of possible reasons why people have failed to respond to your written communication in the past. Share this with your friends at the
next tutorial session. 

1.5.3 Asking the Right Questions
If a channel of communication is blocked or has come to a standstill, you may
need to pause a moment, and re-evaluate the situation. You have to find out
where things have gone wrong. One way to start doing this is by posing
questions to yourself:
(a) Where did it go wrong?
(b) Why was the message not understood or misinterpreted by the receiver?
(c) Was the timing bad?
(d) Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message?
(e) Were there many errors or mistakes in the document?

The answers to these questions may shed some light on where the communication had gone wrong. In order to make it easy for others to understand your communication and respond accordingly, you should make sure that you provide the following:
(a) A clear indication of your purpose.
(b) Accurate and objective information.
(c) Appropriate headings and sub-headings.
(d) A suitable order of information.
(e) Concise and precise instructions.
(f) Desired action clearly spelled out. 

Upon receiving the written communication or report, the reader should
understand the contents of the report clearly; know precisely what action needs to be taken; how to do it; when to do it; and in what manner it should be done.

 This topic highlights the importance of communication, its meaning, and the
relationship between the message, sender and receiver.

 Communication is defined as the giving, receiving or exchanging of
information, opinions or ideas so that the message is completely understood
by everybody involved.

 A two-way process, communication comprises the following elements ñ the
sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and context.

 Barriers to effective communication include status and roles, cultural
differences, choice of communication channel, length of communication,
disabilities, use of language, individual perceptions, noise and distraction,
clarity of message, and feedback.

 There are three important stages to producing good written communication:
ñ Planning;
ñ Writing; and
ñ Editing.

 The pitfalls to avoid in written communication are using confusing language,
verbosity, poor sentence structure, and information overload.
 All borrowed materials must be cited.

 People sometimes fail to respond to written forms of communication for
various reasons, for instance, the message is not clear, the language is weak
or there is too much information.

 The receiver of any written report should be able to understand the contents
of the report, know precisely what action needs to be taken, how to do it and
in what manner it should be done. 

Communication channel
Information overload
Receiver
Sender
Status/roles
Verbosity 



Cook, C. (2002). Line by line. New York: Longman.
Flesch, R. (1996). The art of plain talk. New York: Harper Brothers Publishers.
Hacker, D. (2003). A writer s reference (5th ed.). Boston/New York: Bedford/
St. Martin s.
Ludlow, R., & Panton, F. (1992). The essence of effective communication.
New York: Prentice Hall.
Strunk, W. Jr., White, E. B., & Roger, A. (2004). The elements of style: A style of
gender for writers (4th ed.). New York: Longman.
Taylor, S. (2000). Essential communication skills: The ultimate guide to successful
business communication. Boston: Pearson Educational.

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 
1. Identify important elements in the communication process;
2. Describe four models of communication; and
3. Explain the significance of the roles of signs, symbols, and metaphors
to meaning and interpretation. 

INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about models of communication in order to
help you better understand the nature of communication. Several models of
communication will be presented to show you how various thinkers have tried
to explain the communication process. However, you must remember that all
models have their limitations as they only provide snapshots of a phenomenon,
and not the complete picture. It is not easy to fit something that we do almost
continuously, every waking moment – i.e. communicate – into a simple
illustration. But the models can serve as starting points for you to discover the
mystery of human communication, and to better conceptualise the written
communication process. Only when we have a clear understanding of this can
we hope to hone our skills towards more effective communication. 

2.1 CLAUDE SHANNON’S MODEL
Claude Shannon was an engineer who formulated an information theory based on
mathematical theorems. His model of a communication system – developed in the
1940s – can be summarised in a diagram, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, which shows
that information is transmitted from a source through a channel to a receiver: 

SOURCE --> CHANNEL --> RECEIVER

Figure 2.1: Claude ShannonÊs model of communication. 

In Shannon's model, the encoding and decoding of information is of primary
importance. Put simply, encode is "to compose" a message, whilst decode means
"to interpret" the message. The process of encoding information for transmission,
and of decoding received information is affected by "noise". 
Noise is interference on the channel or media through which the information is
transmitted. This can be external or inherent in the system and can mean many
things, from bad printing of text to static interference of radio waves.
ShannonÊs model, however, is considered by many to be too mechanical because
it ignores the reason people compose messages. The message itself is not always
the reason people communicate; sometimes a piece of communication aims not
so much to relay information as to build and maintain social relations.
For example, let us say that your clientÊs general manager has just met with an
accident and passed away. You send a letter of condolence to your client. In this
case, the content of the letter is of secondary importance.
What is more important is the gesture – the sending of the letter which says, "We
know of your loss and sympathise with you". This gesture aims to maintain the
good relationship you already have with your client, even if there is a change in
management. In this kind of cases, ShannonÊs model has limited impact. 

2.2 ROMAN JAKOBSON’S MODEL 


Figure 2.2: Jakobson's model of communication. 

Roman JakobsonÊs model (please refer to Figure 2.2) is particularly suited to
explain written communication as it takes into account code (the language
you write in) besides other major elements like writer, reader, context, message
and contact. However, it still does not take into consideration factors for
communication such as motives. 

In this model, the contact is your medium of communication. The contact can
be something as simple as a poster on the wall, or something much more
complex (like the Internet which involves servers, satellites, or cables and other
sophisticated technology). 

The code is the language you write in. It includes the alphabet and the discourse
conventions we normally use in written communication. If the writer and the
reader use the same code, then communication is simpler. Communication, for
example, is much easier if you write in Arabic and use legal discourse conventions
when you write to someone who is an Arab and a lawyer by profession. 

Jakobson also borrows from ShannonÊs model (transmission via channel) but his
model still fails to take into account the learning that goes into communicating and
the recursiveness in writing and reading. JakobsonÊs model has been simplified but
this only produces a more limited model (see Figure 2.3). 



Figure 2.3: JakobsonÊs simplified model of communication

2.3 MODEL BASED ON ULRIC NEISSER’S WORK. 

Ulric NeisserÊs work is somewhat harder to put into a model. Neisser himself does
not present us with a model but we can construct a simple one to help us understand
his writings (please refer to Figure 2.4): 

Figure 2.4: Ulric NeisserÊs model of communication 

Figure 2.4 tries to capture the basic ideas of NeisserÊs work in the psychology
of cognition and perception and how they are applied in the writing process. It
presents perception as exploratory and recursive. We explore our world or a
specific phenomenon guided by our desires, needs, ideas and images of the
world. This exploration gives us a new perception or new information of the
world which, in turn, affects our needs, desires and worldviews. This again
changes our perception of the world and so we begin our exploration again. This
cycle continues as long as we are still learning and exploring.
This model is especially relevant in written communication. We write guided by
our ideas, beliefs, and motivations and as we write, we explore, discover and
learn. The information we produce triggers us to start thinking of new ideas.
These new ideas influence our beliefs, and so the exploration cycle begins again.
If you combine this model with those by Shannon and Jakobson, you will come
up with a rather good picture of the writing process which we can now see as
motivated, exploratory and recursive.

2.4 MODEL BASED ON MICHAEL POLANYI’S WORK
Michael Polanyi was a philosopher whose work contributed significantly to our
understanding of written communication. He argues that a person needs to be
actively engaged in the process of knowing, and highlights the importance of the
"tacit dimension", the fact that we know more than we can say and that we often
say more than we realise.
The model is simple. A person discovers meaning in an experience or context, for
instance, he watched a beautiful sunrise. Subsequently, the person writes a text
to express his appreciation and to convey the meaning he had gained from the
experience. He may write a poem, novel, essay, letter or journal entry. Someone else
reads the text in another context (for instance, by the beach) and derives meaning
from it. Of course, in some instances, the reader may be the writer himself.
An important implication of this model is that the reader may not have shared
in the original experience but still derives meaning from the text. However,
the meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not be as intended by the
writer. In other words, a text cannot convey an experience, only meanings. 

You should also not that some texts do not convey a single, unequivocal meaning
to all readers. These are texts we call literature. Both Polanyi's and Neisser's
models highlight the importance of interpretation in written communication.
In general, all the four models of communication could be summarised in Table 2.1. 

Table 2.1: Summary of Communication. 

Model <-------> Key Ideas
Claude Shannon - The encoding and decoding of information is of primary importance.
Roman Jakobson - The contact is your medium of communication.
Ulric Neisser - Perception is exploratory and recursive. We explore our world or a specific phenomenon guided by our desires,
needs, ideas and images of the world. 
Michael Polanyi - The meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not
be as intended by the writer. 

2.5 SOME IDEAS ABOUT COMMUNICATION. 
Communication is a dynamic process. Over the years, there have been changes
not only in the way we communicate but also in the "code" or language form
used. This section introduces us briefly to the signs, symbols and abbreviations
commonly used in written communication as these may have meanings and
interpretations unique to particular contexts, and a failure to understand this can
also cause a breakdown in communication. 

2.5.1 Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations
Signs, symbols and abbreviations are important in written communication. In
fact, signs and symbols are both primitive precursors of the written language
as well as important modern supplements to it. They preceded the Western
alphabet as a form of writing. However, the meanings they convey is culturebound
and may or may not get interpreted correctly, thereby affecting the
effectiveness of the communication. 

A sign can be anything that is used to point to, or stand for, something else. It can
be used to represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts. In
a way, words are also signs, not unlike the painted metal plates on posts we see
by the roadside. The advantage of using signs in written communication is that
the actual objects represented by the signs need not be present when we write
about them. 

However, it is important to choose the correct sign to use for the right occasion. A
"No Parking" sign says a thousand words if it is found beside a house, but would
probably create confusion if it is put beside a swimming pool or located inside a
gymnasium. 

When we use signsto refer to complex things, we call them symbols. Symbols have
complex meanings in addition to literal ones. In some cases, a symbol may have
more than one meaning, some of which may be culture-bound. Take the picture of a
rice stalk, for example. In countries like Japan and Malaysia, this denotes fruitfulness
and abundance; sometimes, even fertility (please refer to Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: The rice plant is a symbol of fertility and abundance
The advent of technology today means that written communication has taken
on new forms such as email and SMS. Increasingly, emoticons and shorthand
notations (acronyms) are used to convey messages. 
Commonly used emoticons are shown in Table 2.2: 

Table 2.2: Meanings of Emoticons. 

Emoticon <--> Meaning
:-) Happy or do not take me too seriously.
;-) Being cheeky or showing disbelief.
:-( Sad or disappointed. 

E-mail communities are also increasingly using abbreviations, such as those shown
in Table 2.3, which have taken on universal meanings in written communication.

Table 2.3: Shorthand Notation
Shorthand Notation Meaning
<g> Grin
<hug> Hug
BTW by the way
FYI for your information
IMHO in my humble/honest opinion
RTM read the manual („manual‰ here refers to any documentation)
LOL [I] laughed out loud [at what you wrote]
RSN real soon now
ROTFL [I am] rolling on the floor laughing [at what you wrote]
TIA thanks in advance
TTFN Ta-ta for now 

ACTIVITY 2.1
"Text does not convey the original experience to the reader. It conveys meaning". Elaborate. 

- A model is a snapshot of a phenomenon, not the complete picture.
- Claude ShannonÊs model gives importance to the encoding and decoding of
information because of the need to counter noise but ignores the reasons why
people compose messages.
- Roman JakobsonÊs model considers the writer, reader, context, message, contact,
and code but does not account for motive.
- According to the model based on the work of Ulric Neisser, we undergo a cycle
of learning whereby we explore based on our existing perceptions, learn new
information, acquire new perceptions, and continue to explore. 

ACTIVITY 2.1
"Text does not convey the original experience to the reader. It conveys
meaning". Elaborate. 
24  TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
- Similarly, we write guided by our beliefs and as we write, we discover new
information which leads to new ideas that influence our beliefs.
- According to the model based on Michael PolanyiÊs work, a piece of text does
not convey the original experience to the reader. Instead, it conveys meaning.
- A sign can represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts.
- Symbols have complex meanings in addition to the literal ones.
- Emoticons and abbreviations are increasingly making an impact in written
communication.


Code
Contact
Context
Exploration
Interpretation
Literal
Meaning
Message
Metaphor
Noise
Perception
Sign
Symbol
Symbolic


Hawkes, T. (1977). Structuralism and semiotics. Los Angeles: University of
California Press.

Kinneavy, J. L. (1971). A theory of discourse. New York: W. W. Norton.

Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive
psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Polanyi, M. (1969). Knowing and being. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Price, R. (1984). A conversation with claude shannon: One manÊs approach to
problem solving. IEEE Comm. 22(5), 123–126. 

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 3 WHAT ARE ESSAYS

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 3 WHAT ARE ESSAYS? 

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Plan an essay;
2. Identify different types of essays; and
3. Develop paragraphs. 

INTRODUCTION
Before you can actually communicate using different forms of writing, you need to know basic writing skills. This topic will assume that you have passed the sentence construction stage and know how to write good sentences. It will focus on teaching you how to write paragraphs. The best way to acquire this skill is to demonstrate it through essay writing.

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, an essay is:  

A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author. 

Over time, essays have become very important in the academic world. Academic essays are used to measure how students fare in their writing performances.
Essays are also used to see the studentsÊ train of thought and ability to argue certain issues. Due to the different purposes of writing, there are many types of academic essays. Examples include the descriptive essay, narrative essay, comparative essay, and argumentative essay. 

Even though there are many types of essays, the basic structure of one particular essay type is very similar to another. Once you understand the basic structure, you should be able to write any type of essay required of you.

Tip:
You need to read widely to improve your writing skills. The reading-writing connection should not be ignored. 

3.1 PLANNING TO WRITE ESSAYS.
Writing good essays is more than just merely making sure the grammar and vocabulary used are correct. There are many writing strategies you can employ to write an essay. Some people like to write down key points as they come to mind and try to rearrange them later into something acceptable, some prefer to write straight away and think as they go along, while others may find it easier to work by coming up with some sort of visual mind map or outline to further develop their thinking. 

As a beginner to essay writing, it is always good to plan what you want to write. As they say, failing to plan is planning to fail. The first thing to do is to make sure you understand what the question wants. Read the question carefully, identify the main issue and understand any new key terms there.

Basically there are four stages involved in essay writing:
(a) Pre-writing;
(b) Draft;
(c) Editing; and
(d) Final draft/essay.

3.1.1 Pre-writing Stage
In this stage you should think about the essay topic, then gather information and scribble your ideas related to it, putting this down in the form of a bulleted list, mind-map, outline and so on (please refer to Figure 3.1). Use the form that you are most comfortable with.



Figure 3.1: Ways of putting your thoughts and ideas in writing
Source: Cox, K. & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book. Melbourne: Addison Wesley
Longman Australia Pty. Ltd. 


ACTIVITY 3.1
Do this activity either alone, in pairs, or in groups. Choose an essay topic and brainstorm the content of the essay. Write down all suggestions, no matter how silly they may sound to you. Keep these suggestions aside until later. 

3.1.2 Drafting Stage
Different people adopt different strategies at this stage. You can come up with an outline and stick closely to this, or begin with the section you are most comfortable with. Alternatively, you can just start writing without a plan. As a beginner, it is always good to have an outline or a plan for your essay. An essay outline might involve the following: 

 Paragraph 1 – Introduction
 Paragraph 2 – Point (a)
 Paragraph 3 – Point (b)
 Paragraph 4 – Point (c)
 Paragraph 5 – Point (d)
 Paragraph 6 – Point (e)
 Paragraph 7 – Conclusion/Summary

ACTIVITY 3.2
Look at the notes you made during the pre-writing exercise (Activity 3.1). Read through them again and decide what you want to include and exclude from your essay. Rearrange and slot the points according to paragraphs. Write your essay based on your outline. 

3.1.3 Editing Stage
After you have finished writing your essay draft, the next step is to reread the essay and edit it. At this stage, you will check the accuracy of content, clarity of expression, grammar, vocabulary and other aspects such as spelling, punctuation, format, and so on.

3.1.4 Final Draft Stage
The final stage is to rewrite your final essay neatly. Remember to check that the format used is correct. It is always good to keep your annotated draft next to you for easy reference.

ACTIVITY 3.3
Reread your first draft and annotate on it. Exchange your annotated essay with your friend and ask him/her to give you feedback. Do the same for him/her. Take note of the suggestions and make changes accordingly.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Rewrite your final essay using the annotated draft as a guide. Write neatly and ensure that the format is correct as you are going to hand in your essay after this stage. (You may want to re-edit and repeat Step 3 again and again until you are satisfied.) 

3.2  TYPES OF ESSAYS
Although there are many types of essays, we are going to look at the three most common essays found in academic writing:

(a) Explanation Essay
An explanation essay usually starts with a general statement, followed by a series of explanations to support the statement.

(b) Argumentation Essay
An argumentation essay, on the other hand, is persuasive in nature and usually begins with a thesis statement. The writer's opinion is then argued out and restated once again in the conclusion.

(c) Discussion Essay
The discussion essay is very similar to the argumentation essay, except that it discusses both sides of the issue and lets the readers decide for themselves.

You are expected to make judgement, or form an opinion, on the type of essay you are going to write while researching your essay topic. One way to make judgement is to look at key phrases found in the topic given. For example, take a look at the essay questions below:

(a) Explain why computers are becoming more important in our daily lives.

(b) Many cosmetic and personal care products undergo safety testing before they are made available to consumers. Most of the time, this means exposing animals to chemical compounds. We should allow animal testing in scientific research provided no animals are harmed in the process.

Discuss.
(c) China in this new millennium decided to reconsider the "bamboo curtain" policy in order to cooperate and strengthen its ties with other countries. What has led to this policy shift and what are the possible consequences?

ACTIVITY 3.5
Look at the three essay questions above and underline the key terms for each question. Then, write a brief explanation of what you should include in your essay for each of the topics. 

From Activity 3.5, you should have identified the key terms below:
 Explain.
 Discuss.
 What has.
 What are.
A brief explanation of what should be included in each essay is suggested below:

(a) I must talk about why computers are becoming more important.

(b) I must think about animal testing and make a decision whether I agree or disagree with the premise: "We should allow animal testing in scientific research provided no animals are harmed in the process." I must define "animal testing" and explain why this is an issue.

(c) There are two questions that need to be answered here. I must research and find out what other people think about why China is trying to cooperate and strengthen its ties with other countries. I must also explain the reasons for the policy shift and speculate about possible consequences in the future.

3.3 DISCOURSE MARKERS
A discourse marker is a word or phrase used in a conversation to signal the speaker's intention to mark a boundary:
"Anyway, I'll have to be going now."
 The function of anyway is to signal a change in the direction of the conversation, in this case to finish it, so anyway is a discourse marker here.
Discourse markers can be used to focus, clarify, contrast, change the subject, show agreement or disagreement etc. 


Source: Discourse Marker – Glossary Definition - UsingEnglish.com. (n.d.).
http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/discourse-marker.html
There are many types of discourse markers in essay writing, depending on the purpose and relationship of the ideas you are trying to express. Table 3.1 shows some common discourse markers that you usually position at the start of a phrase or a clause.

Table 3.1: Examples of Different Types of Discourse Markers Purpose/
Relationship ! Sentence Connectors Position within >> Clause/Sentence

(i) Adding something Moreover; In addition; Additionally; Further; Further to
this; Also; Besides; What is more Initial position

(ii)Making a contrast between two separate things, people, ideas etc. -- However; On the other hand; In contrast; Yet >> Initial position

(iii) Making an unexpected contrast (concession) -- Although; Even though; Despite the 
fact that; In spite of the fact that; Regardless of the fact that Initial position ! Starts a second/subordinate  >> clause

(iv) Saying why something is the case -- Because; Since; As; >> Insofar as Initial position
Starts a second/subordinate >> clause

(v) Saying what the result of something is -- Therefore; Consequently; In consequence; As a result; Accordingly; Hence; Thus; For this reason; Because of this  >> Initial position

(vi) Expressing a condition -- If; In the event of; As long as; So long as; Provided that; Assuming that; Given that >> Initial position ! Starts a second/subordinate clause 

(vii) Making what you say stronger -- On the contrary; As a matter of fact; In fact; Indeed >> Initial position  

Besides the above examples, there are other types of discourse markers that we usually use in essay writing. This includes: 

(a) Time Sequence Markers. 
Time sequence markers link sentences together as shown in Table 3.2:

First, he went to the post office. Then, he stopped by the market.

Table 3.2: Time Sequence Markers

Types    < - - - - - > Sentence Connectors. 

(i) Time markers (general). Before, since, as, until, meanwhile, at the moment, when,
whenever, as soon as, just as. 

(ii) Sequence markers < - - > First(ly), initially, second(ly), third(ly), to begin with, then,
next, earlier/later, after this/that, following, afterwards,
finally, lastly 

(b) Addition and Contrast Markers
Addition markers connect two sentences which are in agreement with each other or support a point (please refer to Table 3.3). For example:
(i) He likes watching movies.
(ii) He enjoys listening to music.

 He likes watching movies and listening to music.
Contrast markers, on the other hand, link sentences which are not in agreement with each other (please refer to Table 3.3). For example:
(i) He did not agree.
(ii) He went along with the plan.

 Although he did not agree, he went along with the plan.

Table 3.3: Addition and Contrast Markers

Types  < - - - - - >  Sentence Connectors
(i) Addition markers < -- > And, in addition, further, also, both,  not only  but also, furthermore, moreover, besides

(ii) Contrast markers < -- > However, but, albeit, though, on the other hand, in contrast, on the contrary, conversely, although, though, while, whereas, in spite of, despite 

(c) Contrast, Deduction, Example, Addition, Summation Markers
These markers connect sentences which add information, summarise or give reasons to support a point (please refer to Table 3.4).

Table 3.4: Contrast, Deduction, Example, Addition, and Summation Markers

Types Sentence Connectors
(i) Add information And, in addition, additionally, moreover, also,
furthermore, as well as,  not only  but also
(ii) Contrast But, whereas, on the contrary, on the other hand,
however, despite
(iii) Summarise/Conclude To summarise, in summary, in conclusion
(iv)  Reason/result/cause/effect

Therefore, thus, though, because, as, if, so
(v) Give examples For example, such as, for instance
(d) Cause and effect markers
Cause and effect markers connect sentences which show cause and effect (please refer to Table 3.5). For example:
(i) There was a traffic jam.
(ii) I was late.
 There was a traffic jam, so I was late.

Table 3.5: Cause and Effect Markers

Types Sentence Connectors
Cause and effect markers So, but, because, as, if, the reason, provided that, in
comparison

3.4 WRITING PARAGRAPHS
This section will show you how paragraphs evolve in essay writing. It is assumed that you are already able to construct sentences on your own. Briefly, an essay consists of three sections: (1) an introduction, (2) the body, and (3) a conclusion. As every paragraph is a mini essay in itself, we can also say that the three sections of the essay exist in every paragraph.

As the name suggests, the introduction paragraph introduces the subject matter of the essay. Usually, the initial sentence introduces the topic and is followed by supporting sentences. The topic sentence, or thesis statement, gives readers an understanding of what your essay is all about while the supporting sentences comprise evidence to support, verify, or provide meaning to the topic sentence (sometimes, with examples). The paragraph then ends with a concluding sentence that sometimes includes information on what comes next in the essay.

The next few paragraphs, called body paragraphs or support paragraphs, contain supporting evidence for the essay. The topic that you have chosen must now be supported through a description, explanation or argument. In order to do that, list all your main points to support your topic and expand each main point into a paragraph.

This process will result in several paragraphs within the body of the essay. Write each paragraph as if it is on its own, clearly stating what that paragraph is about in a topic sentence, then support that topic sentence with evidence (four or five sentences).

You can also provide examples, quotations, facts, and other evidence to support this paragraph. Some writers end with a summary line but this is not necessary. Lastly, write the summary or concluding paragraph. This paragraph will summarise the whole essay, thus making clear to your readers your
understanding of the essay topics. Many people do not take this paragraph seriously as they think it is just a matter of stringing the points together. In actual fact, writing this paragraph can be tricky because you might add too many details or too little information.

The best thing to do is to read all your main points and sub-points. Then, in your own words, write about your understanding of the whole essay in the order it appears. You can use the thesis statement to begin this paragraph if you want to.
Remember to be concise and precise. Revise and check for accuracy. There you have it. It is done. You have written a very basic form of essay. You might want to let a few of your friends read your essay and revise accordingly based on their feedback. 

The following is a basic outline for an essay: 

INTRODUCTION
 – Topic sentence/thesis statement of the whole essay.
 – Support/Evidence.
 – Conclusion for this paragraph and what is to come in next few paragraphs.

BODY
Support Evidence 1 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.
 – Support/Evidence for Evidence 1.
 – Examples/Quotations etc.
 – Conclusion (optional).
Support evidence 2 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.
 – Support/Evidence for Evidence 2.
 – Examples/Quotations etc.
 – Conclusion (optional).
Support evidence 3 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.
 – Support/Evidence for Evidence 3.
 – Examples/Quotations etc.
 – Conclusion (optional).
Support evidence 5

CONCLUSION – Write your summary of the whole essay. Remember to be as clear and convincing as you can as this is the last paragraph your readers are reading. 
It is fine if you are not producing great essays at this point as we will focus on each part of the essay in greater detail in the topics to come. At this stage, it is good if you can practice the four steps in essay planning: 

(1) pre-writing, 

(2) draft, 

(3) editing, and 

(4) final draft. 

It is also good to know the outline of a basic essay. 

 Writing a good essay requires some amount of planning. Basically, there are
four stages involved:
– Pre-writing;
– Draft;
– Editing; and
– Final draft/essay.

 In academic writing, the three most common types of essay are:
– Explanation essay;
– Argumentation essay; and
– Discussion essay.

 A discourse marker is a word or phrase used in a conversation to signal the
speaker's intention to mark a boundary.
 An essay consists of three sections:
– Introduction;
– Body; and
– Conclusion.

Body
Conclusion
Discourse markers
Evidence
Introduction
Thesis statement
Topic sentence 

Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Teacher's book. Alexandria, VA:
Prentice Hall. 

Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book. Melbourne: Addison
Wesley Longman Australia Pty. Ltd. 

Moore, S., & Murray, R. (2006). The handbook of academic writing. Buckingham:
Open University Press. 

Feak, C. A., & Swales, J. M. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students
(2nd ed.). Essential tasks and skills (Michigan series in english for academic &
professional purposes). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press/ESL. 

Discourse Marker – Glossary Definition – UsingEnglish.com. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 6, 2009, from http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/discourse-marker.html 

Discourse Markers. (n.d.). Retrieved September 6, 2009, from
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/ 

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 4 TYPES OF ESSAYS

3 OUMH1203 TOPIC 4 TYPES OF ESSAYS 

INTRODUCTION
Essay writing is a very basic skill which should be learned by everybody. You
were introduced to the basic essay outline in the previous topic. In this topic, you
will learn that there are indeed many types of essay genres out there, for
instance, narration, description, definition, evaluation and so on. This topic will
highlight the three most frequently used essay genres in academic writing and
some of the fallacies commonly found.

As explained in the previous topic, there are three main types of essays ñ the
explanation essay, the argumentation essay, and the discussion essay.
The main objective of an explanation essay is to clarify or explain issues, usually
in the context of natural and social sciences. To make your essay comprehensive,
try answering all the Wh- questions pertaining to the topic you are writing on.
The argumentation essay, on the other hand, not only provides information but
also contains supporting and opposing ideas. Its main objective is to persuade
readers to side with the essay writer.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the different types of essays;
2. Prepare outlines for different essay types;
3. Discuss the concept of supporting evidence; and
4. Explain the concept of logical fallacies. 

The discussion essay is somewhat similar to the argumentation essay at first
glance, but it is actually the most taxing to write of the three genres mentioned. It
contains information as well as the writer s personal views, supported by facts
and evidence. It should not get too personal as the reader s approval is not really
the objective. The main objective is to discuss the issues objectively and let the
readers think for themselves. As we delve deeper into this topic, we will learn
these three genres in greater detail.

 EXPLANATION ESSAY
According to the Cambridge Learner s Dictionary, an "explanation" means:
- the details or reasons that someone gives to make something clear or easy to
understand.
This is further defined by dictionary.com as:
- the act or process of explaining.
OR
- a statement made to clarify something and make it understandable.
Thus, an explanation essay can be defined as an essay that explains things or
processes in sequential order. The use of the simple present tense would be in
order here. 

So how do you handle an explanation essay? The same planning stages you have
learned earlier can be applied when writing any essay. The only things to watch
out for are the different content and various styles of writing essays.
For instance, it is always good to start an explanation essay by giving the readers
some general information about the subject that you are writing about in your
introductory paragraph. The main idea sentence must be able to stand on its own
and make complete sense by itself.

4.1  Try asking yourself some Wh-questions before writing your thesis statement: 

(a) What?
(b) Who?
(c) Why?
(d) What for?
(e) When?
(f) How?

The body of the essay can be written based on three structural styles: 

(a) Temporal Sequential
- The points of the essay are written in a pretty linear way, as in a  b  c
 d. Time markers are usually used to begin each paragraph to show the
processes involved.

(b) Cyclical
- The main points are presented in a cyclical manner, for example, when we
write about the hydrological cycle (formation of rainfall).

(c) Cause and Effect
- An example of this type of essay would be explaining why traffic jams are
common in a big city.
You can conclude the essay by summarising or giving additional information
related to the process before ending.
(a) What?
(b) Who?
(c) Why?
(d) What for?
(e) When?
(f) How? 

42  ACTIVITY 4.1
An essay which is explanatory in nature can be written in three
structures: (1) linear, (2) cyclical, or (3) cause and effect. Read the titles
below and see which structure suits each essay.

1. Explain the life cycle of a butterfly.

2. One very important issue surrounding families today is the issue
of working mothers. Women should not be allowed to work until
their children are at least 12 years old. Discuss.

3. China in the 21st century is committed to strengthening exchange
and cooperation with countries around the world. What are the
historical and political factors which have led to this policy shift
and what will be the possible economic consequences?

4. Explain the causes of youth unemployment and its effects on young people.

5. Explain the four seasons which occur in many parts of the world.

6. It wasn t until the 1960s that the rights of minorities became a
focused issue for many Western countries. Trace the history of the
policies in Australia which led to the end of the 'White Australia" policy in 1974. 

Possible structures:
(a) Steps in linear process ___________________________
(b) Steps in cyclical process ___________________________
(c) Explanation of something that has factors and conditions,
reasons and effects ______________________________

Source: Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book.
Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd. 
Essay Example 1 shows the outline of an essay which describes the process of
making an omelette:

How to Make an Omelette
An omelette is usually made with two or three eggs and is cooked very
quickly in a saut pan. As with so many established recipes and cooking
techniques, the French are the masters of the omelette, which if cooked
correctly, is light, moist, and slightly puffy. A non-stick pan works very well
for preparing an omelette and is often preferred by the home cook, but
professional chefs use an iron pan with a long handle that can be exclusively
used for omelette making. A properly seasoned iron pan can be cleaned after
each use simply by wiping it with a clean cloth or paper towel, rubbing the
pan with salt, and giving the pan a final wipe to remove the salt. The salt
treatment helps prevent eggs from sticking to the pan the next time it is used.
To begin preparing an omelette, crack open 2 or 3 eggs over a bowl, add salt
and pepper (optional), and stir the eggs just until the whites and yolks begin
to blend. The eggs should not be beaten vigorously. 

Then place the saut pan on high heat and thoroughly coat the bottom and
sides of the pan with butter. After the butter is melted, it will begin to
foam. When the foaming stops, the pan is hot enough to begin cooking the
omelette. Make sure the pan is not so hot that the butter begins to brown. If
this happens, the butter will quickly reach its smoke point, which will cause
an unsatisfactory result. 

Next pour the eggs into the pan. The eggs should begin to coagulate almost
immediately. Using a few side to side and turning movements of your arm
while grasping the handle of the pan, distribute the eggs in the pan, creating
an even layer over the entire bottom of the pan.
After heating for a few more seconds, the eggs should begin to form into a
mass resembling the unfolded omelette shape. Jerking the pan toward you
should cause the omelette to roll over upon itself as it hits the side of the pan.
Continue doing this for a few seconds until the omelette is folded into a
pleasing form. 


After tilting the omelette from the pan onto a plate, it is ready to serve. The
actual cooking time is usually no more than 30 to 45 seconds. The omelette
should be tender and moist. A dry omelette indicates that it has been cooked
too long. 

Ingredients that are more substantial in volume (such as cheese or chopped
meat), should not be added to the omelette until after the eggs have
coagulated, but the ingredients must be added prior to flipping the omelette
in half. These ingredients are placed on one side of the omelette; then the
omelette is folded. Folding the omelette in the pan using the flipping
technique might not work as well as it does when folding a plain omelette, so
a spatula is most often used to fold the omelette in the pan. The extra
ingredients can also be placed on top of the plain omelette immediately
before serving. 

 ARGUMENTATION ESSAY
In this type of essay, you try to win your readers over so that they will agree with
what you say, accept your facts, embrace your values, and adopt your arguments
and way of thinking.

I am sure that sounds like a lot of hard work but that is only because it actually
is! For your essay to be effective, there must be a certain convention that needs
to be followed. This is why you must take time to plan before writing an
argumentation essay.

The first thing to do is to read the topic given to you. Once you have read the
topic, underline the key words. Write down a few other words, if possible, that
are similar in meaning with the key words. This will help your understanding
further. 

Once you have understood the topic, you have to decide whether you are for or
against the idea found in the topic. Just merely agreeing or disagreeing would
not help you write a good essay. Besides considering the position you are going
to take, you also need to ensure that you have reasons to back your stand. You
also need to be clear about the two conflicting perspectives that you are going to
present in the essay before taking a stand and backing it up with your reasoning
or evidence. 

4.2  TOPIC 4 TYPES OF ESSAYS 
After all this is done, write the conclusion and re-emphasise your position or
stand about the issues discussed.
Use the basic essay outline discussed earlier. Your essay should have an
introduction, body and conclusion. The introductory paragraph of your essay
should provide a general explanation of your topic, some background
information and a thesis statement or topic sentence.

In this type of essay, your thesis statement would be your stand or the position
you are taking concerning the topic. The body of your essay is like the main
course of a meal, so it is very important that the argument is solid. This is where
you present your arguments in greater detail with evidence to support your
stand, and try to convince the audience why your stand is the right one.
You can use a variety of ways to present your evidence such as statistics, other
studies, popular beliefs and stories. While arguing your points, avoid and look
out for "logical fallacieâ or poor arguments. We will discuss more of these
fallacies towards the end of this topic.

When making claims in an argumentation essay, it is not enough to only have
solid evidence to back them up. You also need to anticipate counter-arguments
and be prepared to address them.

There are a number of ways by which you can generate counterarguments:
(a) By taking the opposing side for a moment;
(b) By doing thorough research on the topic; and
(c) By discussing the topic with a friend.

The conclusion is very important since it is the last part that your readers will read

and probably what they will remember most. So make sure you make your stand
clear and not confusing. In this paragraph, you should remind your readers about
the issue at hand, summarise the main points, re-emphasise your opinion (if you
have given it earlier) and give a glimpse of what is to come if the situation remains
or changes. Remember to keep your conclusion precise and concise, not lengthy.
Your essay layout can be as basic as 1-3-1. This means that the essay comprises
five paragraphs:

(a) An introduction (one paragraph);
(b) Three arguments that support the thesis (three paragraphs); and
(c) A conclusion (one paragraph). 

TIPS.
While the conclusion part is almost similar to the introduction part, avoid
using the same words. Rephrase or use different words to convey the same
meaning. This is why you need to widen your pool of vocabulary. For
practice, try using the thesaurus to look up synonyms from time to time.
Essay Example 2 shows an essay using the basic 1-3-1 layout.
Health and Healing at Your Fingertips

Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory
suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least
come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine.
However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to
our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing
is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.
Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since
it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for
spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time,
something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine
that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that
scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very
effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some "every
day complaints" such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated
currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or
Vermidon; when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the
side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become
addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of
money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and
more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not
need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history,
it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread
particularly throughout America and Western Europe. In quantum physics,
energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is
composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and
effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is
scientifically explained. 
 

Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses
such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think
so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking
medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very
unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair
because of chemotherapy, and losing weight because of the side effects of the
medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when
the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or
cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their
sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs
which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to
overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of
everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic
conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as
poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can
contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and
controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should
definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.

Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends
on time. It is even "lacking time" that causes much of the stress that leads to the
illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to
ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to
the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than
15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special
equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of
relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than
medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some
complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.

Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural
and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age
and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is
definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug
cabinet!

Oya Ozagac. Health and healing at your fingertips. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 2004, from http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/ 


DISCUSSION ESSAY
The last type of essay we are going to look at is the discussion essay. In academic
writing, the term Ñdiscussionâ usually refers to discussing both sides of an issue
or topic, or discussing the results of a certain research and its implications. In an
argumentation essay, we present our views and provide evidence to support our
arguments in order to persuade the readers to agree with us. However, in a
discussion essay, we do not actually do this. In this type of essay, we present
both sides of the issue and let the readers decide for themselves which side of the
fence they want to be on.

Basically, as the writer of a discussion essay, you should cover both sides of the
issue/topic, provide evidence for your discussion, and weigh the evidence to
make your conclusion.

SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
Having a good thesis statement and outline does not guarantee a good essay. It
needs to be supported with solid evidence in order to convince the readers.
4.4
4.3 

ACTIVITY 4.2
There are various stages in an argumentation essay. Using the essay
Health and Healing at Your Fingertips, can you identify these stages?
Discuss with your tutor.

SELF-CHECK 4.1
What is the difference between a discussion essay and an
argumentation essay? 
 

4.4.1 Types of Evidence
There are many types of evidence that you can use in essay writing and they can
be from primary or secondary sources. Primary source, as the name suggests is
first hand information, while secondary source simply means information that is
created out of the primary source.

Evidence can be in the form of facts, quotes, opinions of experts, anecdotes,
examples, or charts and diagrams. The role of evidence or supporting details is to
support your thesis statement:
(a) Fact: Fact is information from something that actually exists in reality, for
example, statistics.
(b) Quotes: Comments from a credible source. Remember not to overuse this.
(c) Opinions of experts: Opinions from experts on the subject of your writing.
(d) Anecdotes: Short accounts of interesting or humorous incidents. These can
liven up a boring academic essay.
(e) Examples: An example is one that is a representative of the whole group.
Examples are great at clarifying your points.
(f) Charts/Diagrams: Drawings or illustrations can be used to clarify complex
concepts in our writing. 

4.4.2 How to Use Evidence
To ensure that your thesis statement is strongly supported, you must follow
certain rules to ensure that the evidence used is credible and valid:

(a) Ensure the accuracy of each fact ñ accuracy of information is crucial
especially with dates, figures, and names.
(b) Facts must be recent (not outdated), reliable and not biased.
(c) Only use facts that are relevant to your writing.
(d) Make sure you have enough facts for each point you want to make.
(e) Arrange facts from general to specific or vice versa. 

4.5 LOGICAL FALLACIES
According to the online Encyclopedia Britannica, a fallacy is:
...an erroneous reasoning that has the appearance of soundness.
This error of reasoning is further explained by a website on logical fallacies:
...when someone adopts a position, or tries to persuade someone else to adopt a
position, based on a bad piece of reasoning, they commit a fallacy.
You need to be aware of fallacies when writing essays, especially the
argumentative kind. There are many types of fallacies. Some, as listed by
www.logicalfallacies.com, are as stated on the next page:

Fallacies of Relevance
(a) Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)
(b) Bandwagon Fallacy
(c) Fallacist s Fallacy
(d) Fallacy of Composition
(e) Fallacy of Division
(f) Gambler s Fallacy
(g) Genetic Fallacy
(h) Irrelevant Appeals
(i) Appeal to Antiquity/Tradition
(ii) Appeal to Authority
(iii) Appeal to Consequences
(iv) Appeal to Force
(v) Appeal to Novelty
(vi) Appeal to Pity
(vii) Appeal to Popularity
(viii) Appeal to Poverty
(ix) Appeal to Wealth
(i) Moralistic Fallacy
(j) Naturalistic Fallacy
(k) Red Herring
(l) Weak Analogy

Fallacies of Ambiguity
(a) Accent Fallacies
(b) Equivocation Fallacy
(c) Straw Man Fallacy
Fallacies of Presumption
(a) Affirming the Consequent
(b) Arguing from Ignorance
(c) Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning
(d) Complex Question Fallacy
(e) Cum Hoc Fallacy
(f) False Dilemma/Bifurcation Fallacy
(g) Hasty Generalisation Fallacy
(h) ÑNo True Scotsmanâ Fallacy
(i) Post Hoc Fallacy
(j) Slippery Slope Fallacy
(k) Sweeping Generalisation Fallacy
(l) Subjectivist Fallacy
(m) Tu Quoque Fallacy 

We will not cover all the fallacies listed above. You can visit the website and read
it in greater detail if you are interested to know more about these fallacies.
However, we will highlight and explain the more popular ones, as listed in the
University of North Carolina website www.unc.edu. 

4.5.1 Hasty Generalisation
Definition:
Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample
that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes
about people (For example, Frat boys are drunkards; Grad students are nerdy.)
are common examples of the principle underlying hasty generalisation. 

Example:
My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too.
All philosophy classes must be hard!
Two people s experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a
conclusion.

Tip:
Ask yourself what kind of "sample" you are using: Are you relying on the
opinions or experiences of just a few people, or your own experience in just a
few situations? If so, consider whether you need more evidence, or perhaps a
less sweeping conclusion. (Notice that in the example, the more modest
conclusion "Some philosophy classes are hard for some students" would not
be a hasty generalisation.)

4.5.2 Missing the Point
Definition:
The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion ñ but not the
conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

Example:
The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime.
Right now, the punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk
driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty
should be the punishment for drunk driving. 

The argument actually supports several conclusions ñ The punishment for drunk
driving should be very serious in particular ñ but it does not support the claim
that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted. 

Tip:
Separate your premises from your conclusion. Looking at the premises, ask
yourself what conclusion an objective person would reach after reading them.
Looking at your conclusion, ask yourself what kind of evidence would be
required to support such a conclusion, and then see if you have actually
given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or
extreme conclusion is being drawn, so be especially careful if you know you
are claiming something big. 

4.5.3 Post hoc (False Cause)
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase post hoc, ergo propter hoc, which
translates as "after this, therefore because of this." 

Definition:
Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event
really does cause another one that comes later ñ for example, if I register for a class,
and my name later appears on the roll, it is true that the first event caused the one
that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time are not really
related as cause and effect. That is, correlation is NOT the same thing as causation. 

Examples:
President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is
responsible for the rise in crime.
The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but
the argument has not shown us that one caused the other. 

Tip:
To avoid the post hoc fallacy, the arguer would need to give us some
explanation of the process by which the tax increase is supposed to have
produced higher crime rates. And that is what you should do to avoid
committing this fallacy: If you say that A caused B, you should have
something more to say about how A caused B than just that A came first and
B came later! 

4.5.4 Slippery Slope
Definition:
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire
consequence, will take place, but there is really not enough evidence for that
assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the "slippery
slope," we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we
cannot stop halfway down the hill. 

Example:
Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don t respect life, we
are likely to be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon
our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for
his/her life. It will be the end of civilisation. To prevent this terrible consequence,
we should make animal experimentation illegal right now. 

Since animal experimentation has been legal for some time and civilisation has
not yet ended, it seems clear that this chain of events will not necessarily take
place. Even if we believe that experimenting on animals reduces respect for life,
and loss of respect for life makes us more tolerant of violence, that may be the
spot on the hillside at which things stop ñ we may not slide all the way down to
the end of civilisation. So there is insufficient reason to accept the arguer s
conclusion that we must make animal experimentation illegal right now. 

Like post hoc, slippery slope can be tricky to identify because sometimes a chain
of events can be predicted to follow a certain action. Here is an example: If I fail
English 101, I won t be able to graduate. If I don t graduate, I probably won t be
able to get a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or flipping
burgers for the next year. 

Tip:
Check your argument for chains of consequences, where you say "if A, then
B, and if B, then C," and so forth. Make sure these chains are reasonable.

4.5.5 Weak Analogy
Definition:
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas or
situations. If the two things that are being compared are not really alike, the
analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of
weak analogy.

Example:
Guns are like hammers / they re both tools with metal parts that could be used to
kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers
/ so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.
While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal
parts) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we
restrict guns because they can be used to kill large numbers of people at a 
distance. This is a feature hammers do not share / it would be hard to kill a
crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak and so is the argument based
on it. 

Tip:
Identify what properties are important to the claim you are making, and see
whether the two things you are comparing both share those properties. 

4.5.6 Appeal to Authority
Definition:
Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or
authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we are discussing. If,
however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with
a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who is not much of an
expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority. 

Example:
We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy
Handsome, have publicly stated their opposition to it.
While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters related to acting, there is
no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political stand. 

Tip:
There are two easy ways to avoid committing this fallacy. First, make sure
that the authorities you cite are experts on the subject you are discussing.
Second, rather than just saying "Dr Authority believes x, so we should
believe it, too," try to explain the reasoning or evidence that the authority
used to arrive at his/her opinion. It also helps to choose authorities who are
perceived as fairly neutral or reasonable, rather than people perceived as
biased. 

4.5.7 Ad Populum
Definition:
The Latin name of this fallacy means "to the people." There are several versions
of the ad populum fallacy, but what they all have in common is that the arguer
takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with
others and uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his/her argument. 

One of the most common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the
arguer tries to convince the audience to do something because everyone else
(supposedly) does. 

Example:
Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans think so!
While the opinion of most Americans might be relevant in determining what
laws we should have, it certainly does not determine what is moral or immoral. 

Tip:
Make sure that you are not recommending that your audience believe your
conclusion because everyone else believes it, all the cool people believe it,
people will like you better if you believe it, and so forth. Keep in mind that
popular opinion is not always right. 

4.5.8 Ad Hominem and Tu Quoque
Definitions:
The ad hominem ("against the person") and tu quoque ("you, too!") fallacies
focus our attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. In both of
these arguments, the conclusion is usually "You shouldn t believe So-and-So s
argument." The reason for not believing So-and-So is that So-and-So is either a bad
person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque). In an ad hominem argument, the
arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the opponent s argument. 

Examples:
Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that pornography harms
women. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person, so you shouldn't listen to her.
Dworkin's appearance and character have nothing to do with the strength of her
argument, so using them as evidence is fallacious. 

In a tu quoque argument, the arguer points out that the opponent has actually
done the thing he/she is arguing against, and so the opponent's argument
shouldn't be listened to. Here is an example: Imagine that your parents have
explained to you why you should not smoke ñ the damage to your health. You
reply: I won t accept your argument because you used to smoke when you were
my age. You did it, too! The fact that your parents have done the very thing they
are condemning has no bearing on the premise they put forward in their argument
(smoking harms your health and is very expensive), so your response is fallacious. 

Tip:
Be sure to stay focused on your opponents  reasoning, rather than on their
character. 

4.5.9 Appeal to Pity

Definition:
Appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a
conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.

Examples:
I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A.
My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and I ve had a cold, so it was really
hard for me to study. 

The conclusion here is "You should give me an A." But the criteria for getting
an A has to do with learning and applying the material from the course. The
principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who have a hard week deserve
A s) is unacceptable. The information the arguer has given might feel relevant
but it is not, and so the argument is fallacious. 

Tip:
Make sure that you are not simply trying to get your readers to agree with
you by making them feel sorry for someone. 

4.5.10 Appeal to Ignorance
Definition:
In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says: "Look, there is no
conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my
conclusion on this issue." 

Example:
People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet
been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.
Here is an opposing argument that commits the same fallacy: People have been
trying for years to prove that God does not exist. But no one has yet been able to
prove it. Therefore, God exists. In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of
evidence as support for a positive claim about the truth of a conclusion. There is 
one situation in which doing this is not fallacious: If qualified researchers have
used well-thought-out methods to search for something for a long time, they
have not found it, and it is the kind of thing people ought to be able to find, then
the fact that they have not found it constitutes some evidence that it does not
exist. 

Tip:
Look closely at arguments where you point out a lack of evidence and then
draw a conclusion from that lack of evidence. 

4.5.11 Straw Man
Definition:
One way of making your argument stronger is to anticipate and respond in
advance to the arguments that an opponent might make. In the straw man
fallacy, the arguer sets up a wimpy version of the opponent s position and tries
to score points by knocking it down. But just as being able to knock down a
straw man is not really impressive, defeating a watered-down version of your
opponent's argument is not impressive either. 

Example:
Feminists want to ban all pornography and punish everyone who reads it! But
such harsh measures are surely inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: porn
and its readers should be left in peace.

The feminist argument is made weak by being overstated ñ in fact, most feminists
do not propose an outright "ban" on porn or any punishment for those who
merely read it; often, they propose some restrictions on things like child porn, or
propose to allow people who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and producers,
not readers, for damages. So the arguer has not really scored any points; he or
she has just committed a fallacy. 

Tip:
Be charitable to your opponents. State their arguments as strongly,
accurately, and sympathetically as possible. If you can knock down even the
best version of an opponent s argument, then you ve really accomplished
something. 

4.5.12 Red Herring

Definition:
Halfway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side
issue that distracts the audience from what is really at stake. Often, the arguer
never returns to the original issue.

Example:
Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes
go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.
Let us try our premise-conclusion outlining to see what is wrong with this
argument:

Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are
getting along well.

Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do.
When we lay it out this way, it is pretty obvious that the arguer went off on a
tangent ñ the fact that something helps people get along doesn t necessarily make
it more fair; fairness and justice sometimes require us to do things that cause
conflict. But the audience may feel like the issue of teachers and students
agreeing is important and be distracted from the fact that the arguer has not
given any evidence as to why a curve would be fair.

Tip:
Try laying your premises and conclusion out in an outline-like form. How
many issues do you see being raised in your argument? Can you explain how
each premise supports the conclusion?

4.5.13 False Dichotomy

Definition:
The arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The
arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only
one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place. But often there
are really many different options, not just two ñ and if we thought about them
all, we might not be so quick to pick the one the arguer recommends! 


Example:
Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new building,
or we continue to risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's
safety, so we must tear the building down.

The argument neglects to mention the possibility that we might repair the
building or find some way to protect students from the risks in question ñ for
example, if only a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn t hold classes
in those rooms.

Tip:
Examine your own arguments: If you are saying that we have to choose
between just two options, is that really so? Or are there other alternatives you
haven t mentioned? 

4.5.14 Begging the Question
Definition: Basically, an argument that begs the question asks the reader to
simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence; the argument
either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion ("circular
reasoning"), or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that
the argument rests on.

Examples:
Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help
another human being escape suffering through death.
Let us lay this out in premise-conclusion form:
Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape
suffering through death.

Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally acceptable.
If we "translate" the premise, we ll see that the arguer has really just said
the same thing twice: "decent, ethical" means pretty much the same thing as
"morally acceptable," and "help another human being escape suffering through
death" means "active euthanasia." So the premise basically says, "active
euthanasia is morally acceptable," just like the conclusion does! The arguer hasn't
yet given us any real reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left
us asking "well, really, why do you think active euthanasia is acceptable?" Her
argument "begs" (that is, evades) the real question. 

Tip:
One way to avoid begging the question is to write out your premises and
conclusion in a short, outline-like form. See if you notice any gaps that are
required to move from one premise to the next or from the premises to the
conclusion. Write down the statements that would fill those gaps. If the
statements are controversial and you ve just glossed over them, you might
be begging the question. Next, check to see whether any of your premises
basically says the same thing as the conclusion (but in other words). If so,
you're begging the question. The moral of the story: You cannot just assume
or use as uncontroversial evidence the very thing you are trying to prove. 

4.5.15 Equivocation
Definition: Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a
single word or phrase that is important to the argument.

Example:
Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to our
money.

The equivocation here is on the word "right": "right" can mean both something
that is correct or good (as in "I got the right answers on the test") and something
to which someone has a claim (as in "everyone has a right to life"). Sometimes an
arguer will deliberately, sneakily equivocate, often on words like "freedom,"
"justice," "rights," and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or
misunderstanding. Either way, it is important that you use the main terms of
your argument consistently.

Tip:
Identify the most important words and phrases in your argument and ask
yourself whether they could have more than one meaning. If they could, be
sure you are not slipping and sliding between those meanings. 


- An explanation essay can be defined as an essay that explains things or
processes in sequential order.
- An argumentation essay tries to win the audience over so that they agree
with what we say, accept our facts, embrace our values, and adopt our
arguments and way of thinking.
- In a discussion essay, we present both sides of the issue and let the audience
decide for themselves which side of the fence they want to be on.
- Having a good thesis statement and outline does not guarantee a good essay.
It needs to be supported with solid evidence in order to convince the
audience.
- When someone adopts a position, or tries to persuade someone else to adopt
a position based on a bad piece of reasoning, they are committing a logical
fallacy. 

Ad hominem
Ad populum
Appeal to authority
Appeal to ignorance
Appeal to pity
Argumentation essay
Begging the question
Discussion essay
Equivocation
Explanation essay
Fallacies of ambiguity
Fallacies of presumption
Fallacies of relevance
False dichotomy
Hasty generalisation
Logical fallacies
Missing the point
Post hoc (false cause)
Red herring
Slippery slope
Straw man
Supporting evidence
Tu quoque
Weak analogy 

Argumentative Essay. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2009, from 
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUMENTATIVE%20ESSAY.htm#sample_essay 

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Hall.

Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book. Melbourne: Addison
Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd. (2007). 

Cambridge Learner's Dictionary with CD-ROM (Cambridge Learner s
Dictionary). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Explanation Definition|Definition of Explanation at Dictionary.com. (n.d.). 
Retrieved September 6, 2009, from http://dictionary.reference.com 

Fallacy (logic) ñ Britannica Online Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24,
2009, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked 

Fallacies. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2009, from http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb 

Kitchen-tip. How to make an egg omelette. (n.d.). Retrieved September 11, 2009,
from http://www.recipetips.com 
Logical fallacies. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2009, from
http://www.logicalfallacies.info/