Topic 9 - Ethnic Relations
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of ethnic relations;
2. Explain the ethnic dimension in socio-cultural relations;
3. Describe the process of ethnic conflict and its effects; and
4. Describe ethnic awareness and identity in society.
INTRODUCTION.
John has stayed in Malaysia for a few months and is feeling comfortable with the
multicultural atmosphere which is a hallmark of the country. John finds that
Malaysians respect one another and have learned to live together in peace and
harmony (please refer to Figure 9.1). His friend Ahmad is not choosy about
friends and mingles freely with friends of other races. During festivities, John
observes the culture of open house practiced by Malaysians irrespective of race
and religion. They will invite their friends to partake of various dishes such as
lemangduring Hari RayaAidilfitri, mandarin oranges during Chinese New Year,
muruku during Deepavali, and many more. John enjoys the variety of dishes
available in Malaysia and appreciates that cultural diversity enriches a
developing society. Even so, it must be remembered that the 13th May 1969
incident looms large as a black mark in the history of racial relations in Malaysia.
Figure 9.1: Racial harmony in Malaysia
Other nations experience severe racial conflict. Among them include the conflict
between the Protestants and the Catholics in Ireland, between the blacks and the
whites in the United States, between the Asians and the whites in England,
between the Muslims and the Christians in Indonesia, between the Serbs and the
Bosnians in Bosnia, between the Tutsi and the Hutu in Rwanda, between the
Muslims and the Hindus in India, between the Moro Muslims and the Christians
in the Philippines, between the Sinhalese and the Tamils in Sri Lanka, and
between the blacks and the whites in South Africa. All these are examples of
conflict based on physical and cultural differences. In short, racial and ethnic
differences in the aforementioned nations have caused conflict, tension, riots,
killing, and all forms of violence.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Before you continue reading, explain what you understand by the
concept of racial and ethnic relations. Compare your views with
the explanation given below.
9.1 UNDERSTANDING ETHNIC DIFFERENCES
The field of ethnic relations studies social behaviour and interaction between
societies that have different physical and cultural backgrounds. When culturally
different societies collide, there is bound to be problems when it comes to social
interaction between them as each one would have their own unique cultural
practices. Ethnic relations studies also observe how our social and cultural
surroundings play a part in influencing that social interaction, harmonious or
otherwise. By understanding the dynamics of ethnic relations, we may be able to
solve some of the problems that we have mentioned above. The question is: how
is our racial consciousness of ourselves as Malay, Chinese, or Indian formed?
How do we behave when we mingle with others from other ethnic groups?
9.2 RACE AND ETHNICITY
What is the difference between race and ethnicity? Generally speaking, the
term rrace refers to the physical and biological characteristics of a group of
people. Ethnicity refers to the cultural characteristics of a group or society. It is
important to remember that race is hereditary and biologically determined,
whereas ethnicity is a form of perception on our part or of others towards us. For
example, if we were born with Malay looks, it would be very difficult for us to
alter our looks so that it will appear English. Of course, this has not stopped
some people from trying (please refer to Figure 9.2). The concepts of „race‰ and
ethnicity are discussed in greater detail in the following sub-topics.
Figure 9.2: Michael Jackson black or white?
Source: entertainmentrundown.com S
SSource: mystuffworld.com
9.2.1 Race
Usually, the concept of rrace refers to a group of people with biological and
physical hereditary features that differ from other groups. According to this
definition, we can categorise people into three types:
(i) Caucasoid: White-skinned, blond hair, tall physique. This type is
predominantly found in European countries and the United States and is said
to originate from the Caucasus in East Europe (please refer to Figure 9.3).
(ii) Negroid: They consist of the native inhabitants of Africa. They have curly
hair, black skin, and flat noses (please refer to Figure 9.4). This term
originated from the word Negro.
(iii) Mongoloid: They are mostly found in East Asia (please refer to Figure 9.5)
and is said to originate from Central Asia. This term is taken from the
place-name Mongolia, one of the countries in Central Asia.
Figure 9.4: Negroid
Source: students.washington.edu
Figure 9.3: Caucosoid Figure 9.5: Mongoloid
Source: Source:
www.vagent.com forum.asuultserver.com
However, many groups of people do not fit neatly into any of these three
categories. This is due to extensive interracial marriages which make
classification of people according to the physical characteristics mentioned above
difficult to do.
In today's context, the term ethnicity may be more appropriate and has wider
currency. Actually, the ethnic consciousness or perspective sometimes has
nothing to do with biological or physical characteristics. For example, if we care
to look around us, there are Malays whose looks resemble the Chinese, Arabs, or
Indians. Conversely, there are also Chinese who look like Malays. Nevertheless,
they all remain ethnically Chinese, Malay, or Indian in identity despite the fact
that they look nothing like their actual races.
9.2.2 Ethnicity.
An ethnic group refers to a group of people with the same cultural tradition or a
shared sense of identity. This group may be a sub-group which exists in a
country with other ethnic groups. For example, there are several large ethnic
groups in our country (Malay, Chinese, and Indian) as well as smaller sub-ethnic
groups (Dusun, Kadazan, Iban, Bidayuh, Jawa, Bugis, and others). Different
ethnic groups have different cultural characteristics in terms of language,
religion, and customs. Therefore, we may conclude that race is a group of
people differentiated according to biological and physical characteristics,
whereas ethnicity is differentiated according to various cultural perceptions
and elements. For example, Malays and Chinese may be grouped into the same
race (Mongoloid) but may be ethnically divergent due to cultural differences
(please refer to Figure 9.6 and Figure 9.7).
Figure 9.6: Malay dance (zapin)
Source: antiyank.wordpress.com
Figure 9.7: Lion dance
Source: adventuresinshaw.com
ACTIVITY 9.2
Malaysia is rich with ethnic diversity. List as many ethnic groups as
you can think of. Then, try to group them according to race. Are
there ethnic groups which belong to the same racial category?
9.3 ETHNICITY IN SOCIO-CULTURAL RELATIONS
If a group of people remain in their own geographical areas and do not meet
other people, then race or ethnic relations issues will not arise. Ethnic relations
problems occur the moment people from different cultural backgrounds meet
and mingle with each other. Cultural clashes cannot be avoided because people
are always on the move to seek new lands to explore, conquer, or colonize. Some
of these cultural encounters have resulted in wars and conquests. For example,
the Mongols advanced over Europe, Western Asia, and China and in the process
war ensued between them and the locals.
The movement of peoples from one area to another is part of cultural dynamics.
In the modern age, the movement of peoples from one nation to another is very
much influenced by economic factors, that is, to secure a better living in a new
place. There are also political cases involving war fugitives and those who seek
political asylum. These factors cause cultural clashes to ensue due to cultural
differences.
In race and ethnic relations, different groups of people are stratified into:
Upper strata: Usually categorised as the dominant, superordinate, superior,
or majority group.
Lower strata: Usually categorised as the subordinate, inferior, or minority
group. Generally, lower strata racial and ethnic groups are oppressed, denied
basic human rights, and discriminated by the upper strata group (please refer
to Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8: Racial oppression
Source: almasweblog.wordpress.com
The forms of race and ethnic relations may be categorised as follows:
(i) Cooperation: This is motivated by collective interests. Cooperation may
happen between individuals (for example, neighbours) or between groups
(for example, political parties). Cooperation is the bedrock to creating unity
between different ethnic groups.
(ii) Competition: This is the process of beating someone else to gain access to
limited resources, such as work, rank, education, housing, land, and so on.
(iii) Conflict: This refers to a competitive process to acquire something by
weakening, defeating, or destroying the other party with the same interests.
The three forms of race and ethnic relations above raise various implications and
problems, some harmonious and others less so. Therefore, the question which is
raised is: how can different ethnic and racial groups co-exist? The following
social patterns cover a wide range of possibilities that may happen in racial and
ethnic relations all over the world:
(i) Assimilation: In most cases, the minority ethnic or racial group is
assimilated into the larger ethnic or racial group. Assimilation usually
involves cultural assimilation where the minority group adopts a great part
of the majority group's culture.
(ii) Pluralism: Some minority groups refuse to let go of their ethnic or racial
identity because they have a high degree of ethnic or racial consciousness
and are proud of their cultural heritage. At the same time, the dominant
group is willing to allow and encourage the existence of a plurality of
cultures in society.
(iii) Legal protection of minorities: In some countries, minority groups are
protected by law. For example, the Race Relation Act 1965 in England was
formed to safeguard the social and cultural interests of ethnic minorities.
(iv) Population transfer: In a situation where there is great conflict between
racial and ethnic groups, the solution involves transferring the racial and
ethnic population to another location.
(v) Continued subjugation: In some cases, the dominant group desires to retain
its privileges over the minority groups. To accomplish this, they will use
pressure to physically separate and segregate different racial and ethnic
groups.
(vi) Extermination: The extermination of whole populations or genocide is a
widespread social phenomenon in many parts of the world. The methods
used include execution using firearms or deliberately spreading contagious
diseases like small-pox among the target population.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
List and explain the various social patterns which characterise race
and ethnic relations.
9.4 ETHNIC CONFLICT
As mentioned above, race and ethnic relations may be harmonious or hostile.
Several basic factors contribute towards hostile relations between ethnic and
racial groups.
9.4.1 Racism and Ethnocentrism
Racism refers to the assumption that one's own race is superior to that of others.
Ethnocentrism, however, is the belief that elements in one's own culture (such as
religion, values, attitudes, and customs) are superior to that of other cultural groups.
9.4.2 Racism and Ethnocentrism: Functional or Dysfunctional?
The two assumptions mentioned above have hidden functions. Awareness of racial
superiority can create strong bonds of solidarity and togetherness among the
members of a racial or ethnic group. Adolf Hitler used the idea of the superiority of
the Aryan race to gain support for Nazism (please refer to Figure 9.9). On the other
hand, such assumptions may also be dysfunctional. Racism and ethnocentrism
may cause somebody to regard other groups as socially and culturally inferior. If
these assumptions are accepted without question, then it might be used as a
justification to oppress and exploit others. If this happens, then racial and ethnic
Figure 9.9: Adolf Hitler differences may lead to conflict and tension
Source: deviantart.com
in a multicultural society.
9.4.3 Causes of Racism and Ethnocentrism
We know that racism and ethnocentrism may lead to conflict. As such, conflict
theory is useful in analysing the causes which contribute to racism and
ethnocentrism. According to conflict theory, racism and ethnocentrism exist due
to competition between ethnic and racial groups over limited resources. Three
conditions lead to the formation of racism and ethnocentrism:
(i) There must be two or more social groups which may be identified through
physical and cultural differences.
(ii) There must be competition between these groups for valuable resources
such as power, land, or work.
(iii) There must be an imbalance of power between these groups. In other
words, there is one dominant group with greater power to deny the other
groups access to these valuable resources.
The greater the competition, the greater the feelings of racism and ethnocentrism.
The conflict perspective views economic inequalities as the cause for the increase
in racism and ethnocentrism. Conflict theory states that the white race has to
assume that the coloured race (the blacks) is not as dignified as they are in order
to rationalise the act of colonisation. Racist ideology justifies discrimination
towards blacks on the basis that their position is inferior, hence they are deemed
unfit to shoulder high positions, gain an education, or have access to other basic
facilities and services. Is this fair, given that we are all human at heart (please
refer to Figure 9.10).
Figure 9.10: Being a human is not a crime, being a racist?
Source: cjwriter.com
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the formation of ethnocentrism and racism.
9.4.4 Prejudice and Discrimination
Racial and ethnic relations may be further strained by prejudice and
discrimination. PPrejudice refers to a negative view of people from other racial or
ethnic groups. Prejudice leads people to hate others because of ethnic or racial
differences and because they have traits which are deemed undesirable.
Discrimination refers to unfair and unequal treatment towards individuals or
groups on the basis of irrelevant criteria such as gender, race, ethnicity, or social
class. Discrimination happens when one group of people deny other groups of
people their rights because of racial and ethnic differences.
An important factor which brings about prejudice and discrimination is inaccurate
social perception about a racial or ethnic group. This perception is further
aggravated by a an early history of confrontation between these racial and ethnic
groups. Confrontation between these racial and ethnic groups will usually bring
about feelings of us and them. This is the attitude of viewing unfamiliar people
as outsiders, which means that one's relations with them is not equal to that
enjoyed with insiders. These feelings make us consider outsiders as the
enemy, untrustworthy, dubious, and unworthy of equal treatment.
The process of socialisation tends to worsen that perception, especially
when distorted perceptions are passed down from generation to generation.
Moreover, the mass media (television, films, newspapers, and the like) is
responsible for the perpetuation of this wrong perception, giving the
impression that a racial or ethnic group is violent, poor, or evil. For example,
Hollywood tends to portray blacks as Figure 9.11: Blacks as criminals
criminals, drunkards, and the cause of Source: thirdhandprojects.wordpress
various social and economic problems (please refer to Figure 9.11).
9.4.5 Stereotype
Prejudice and discrimination are closely linked to the concept of stereotype.
Stereotypes are presumed notions that form beliefs, expectations, and
expressions that may not be true. Stereotypes usually link negative traits to a
particular ethnic group, for example, the widespread belief that Malays are lazy.
This widely-held belief may have been formed due to past experiences, through
socialisation, or through hearsay.
Stereotypes take effect whenever someone meets people from other ethnic groups for the
first time. Though they may not possess any negative traits as popularly presumed,
stereotypes will cause us to have a bad impression of others from the beginning for no
good reason. For example, most people would have a bad first impression of Negros and
Africans upon encountering them because of the widespread belief that these ethnic groups
tend towards crime and violence. Our first impression would prove to be misguided if we
stop to consider who the current president of Figure 9.12: Barack Obama
the United States is (please refer to Figure 9.12). Source: emuneee.wordpress.com
Ethnic and racial groups which form the minority are not only prejudiced and
discriminated against. In certain cases, they become scapegoats, blamed by the
dominant group for any social, economic, or political problems which may arise
in the country. In Malaysia, immigrants from Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Vietnam, and other countries are often blamed for increasing incidences of crime
and moral depravity in the country.
ACTIVITY 9.3
With your friends, discuss some of the common stereotypes that
you know with an open mind. Is there some truth to these
stereotypes? How did these stereotypes come about?
9.5 ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS AND IDENTITY
Race and ethnic relations is a process which develops through time, beginning
with a preliminary social contract which hopefully would lead to unity. Yet this
process may not turn out this way. To facilitate our discussion, please take a look
at the following race and ethnic relations process which forms a continuum
beginning with segregation and eventually leading to biological integration
(please refer to Figure 9.13):
Figure 9.13: Race and ethnic relations process
(i) Segregation: Race and ethnic relations are characterised by separation
where racial and ethnic groups are physically, socially, and culturally set
apart from each other, for example, the apartheid system in South Africa.
(ii) Accommodation: Racial and ethnic groups co-exist in peace though they
still remain separate. Each group is politically represented and attempt to
compromise with each other to safeguard their rights and interests. This
relationship pattern is usually found in multicultural societies.
(iii) Acculturation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by cultural
assimilation, whereby different racial and ethnic groups borrow and absorb
cultural elements from each other. In extreme cases, the minority groups
tend to accept the dominant group's culture wholesale.
(iv) Assimilation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by structural
assimilation as opposed to cultural assimilation. At this level, minority
groups are absorbed into mainstream society not only at the cultural level
but also economically, educationally, and so on.
(v) Amalgamation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by interracial
marriages (please refer to Figure 9.14). As a result, a new race is formed and
unifies the various ethnic and racial groups. Theoretically, an ideal form of
integration happens when biological and racial factors are set aside, as
practiced in Brazil and Hawaii where interracial marriages are the norm.
Figure 9.14: Interracial marriage
Source: blog.dmichaelclary.com
SELF-CHECK 9.3
Explain the meaning of the following concepts:
Segregation
Accommodation
Acculturation
Assimilation
Amalgamation
Race and ethnic studies as a field social science have high practical value
because it is useful in solving racial conflict within the nation.
Race is a concept characterised by the biological features of a group,
whereas ethnicity refers to the cultural elements that differentiate one
social group from another.
Ethnic conflicts have negative consequences to a multicultural society
because it causes disunity and disorder in society. Ultimately, the nation
suffers economically, socially, and politically.
Ethnic unity promises a calmer social atmosphere which is more tolerant of
cultural difference. If this can be achieved, the nation will benefit because
everyone will work together towards realising shared goals.
Accommodation Extermination
Acculturation Legal Protection of Minorities
Assimilation Mongoloid
Assimilation Negroid
Caucasoid Pluralism
Competition Population Transfer
Conflict Prejudice
Continued Subjugation Race
Cooperation Racism
Discrimination Segregation
Ethnic Group Stereotype
Ethnicity Amalgamation
Ethnocentrism
Banton, M. (1987). Racial theories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scupin, R. (Ed.). (2003). Race and ethnicity. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Ting, C. P. (1987). Hubungan ras dan etnik: Satu pengantar. Kuala Lumpur:
Pustaka Dimensi.
Ting, C. P. (1997). Konsep asas sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Van den Berghe, P. L. (1967). Race and racism: A comparative perspective.
New York: John Wiley.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of ethnic relations;
2. Explain the ethnic dimension in socio-cultural relations;
3. Describe the process of ethnic conflict and its effects; and
4. Describe ethnic awareness and identity in society.
INTRODUCTION.
John has stayed in Malaysia for a few months and is feeling comfortable with the
multicultural atmosphere which is a hallmark of the country. John finds that
Malaysians respect one another and have learned to live together in peace and
harmony (please refer to Figure 9.1). His friend Ahmad is not choosy about
friends and mingles freely with friends of other races. During festivities, John
observes the culture of open house practiced by Malaysians irrespective of race
and religion. They will invite their friends to partake of various dishes such as
lemangduring Hari RayaAidilfitri, mandarin oranges during Chinese New Year,
muruku during Deepavali, and many more. John enjoys the variety of dishes
available in Malaysia and appreciates that cultural diversity enriches a
developing society. Even so, it must be remembered that the 13th May 1969
incident looms large as a black mark in the history of racial relations in Malaysia.
Figure 9.1: Racial harmony in Malaysia
Other nations experience severe racial conflict. Among them include the conflict
between the Protestants and the Catholics in Ireland, between the blacks and the
whites in the United States, between the Asians and the whites in England,
between the Muslims and the Christians in Indonesia, between the Serbs and the
Bosnians in Bosnia, between the Tutsi and the Hutu in Rwanda, between the
Muslims and the Hindus in India, between the Moro Muslims and the Christians
in the Philippines, between the Sinhalese and the Tamils in Sri Lanka, and
between the blacks and the whites in South Africa. All these are examples of
conflict based on physical and cultural differences. In short, racial and ethnic
differences in the aforementioned nations have caused conflict, tension, riots,
killing, and all forms of violence.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Before you continue reading, explain what you understand by the
concept of racial and ethnic relations. Compare your views with
the explanation given below.
9.1 UNDERSTANDING ETHNIC DIFFERENCES
The field of ethnic relations studies social behaviour and interaction between
societies that have different physical and cultural backgrounds. When culturally
different societies collide, there is bound to be problems when it comes to social
interaction between them as each one would have their own unique cultural
practices. Ethnic relations studies also observe how our social and cultural
surroundings play a part in influencing that social interaction, harmonious or
otherwise. By understanding the dynamics of ethnic relations, we may be able to
solve some of the problems that we have mentioned above. The question is: how
is our racial consciousness of ourselves as Malay, Chinese, or Indian formed?
How do we behave when we mingle with others from other ethnic groups?
9.2 RACE AND ETHNICITY
What is the difference between race and ethnicity? Generally speaking, the
term rrace refers to the physical and biological characteristics of a group of
people. Ethnicity refers to the cultural characteristics of a group or society. It is
important to remember that race is hereditary and biologically determined,
whereas ethnicity is a form of perception on our part or of others towards us. For
example, if we were born with Malay looks, it would be very difficult for us to
alter our looks so that it will appear English. Of course, this has not stopped
some people from trying (please refer to Figure 9.2). The concepts of „race‰ and
ethnicity are discussed in greater detail in the following sub-topics.
Figure 9.2: Michael Jackson black or white?
Source: entertainmentrundown.com S
SSource: mystuffworld.com
9.2.1 Race
Usually, the concept of rrace refers to a group of people with biological and
physical hereditary features that differ from other groups. According to this
definition, we can categorise people into three types:
(i) Caucasoid: White-skinned, blond hair, tall physique. This type is
predominantly found in European countries and the United States and is said
to originate from the Caucasus in East Europe (please refer to Figure 9.3).
(ii) Negroid: They consist of the native inhabitants of Africa. They have curly
hair, black skin, and flat noses (please refer to Figure 9.4). This term
originated from the word Negro.
(iii) Mongoloid: They are mostly found in East Asia (please refer to Figure 9.5)
and is said to originate from Central Asia. This term is taken from the
place-name Mongolia, one of the countries in Central Asia.
Figure 9.4: Negroid
Source: students.washington.edu
Figure 9.3: Caucosoid Figure 9.5: Mongoloid
Source: Source:
www.vagent.com forum.asuultserver.com
However, many groups of people do not fit neatly into any of these three
categories. This is due to extensive interracial marriages which make
classification of people according to the physical characteristics mentioned above
difficult to do.
In today's context, the term ethnicity may be more appropriate and has wider
currency. Actually, the ethnic consciousness or perspective sometimes has
nothing to do with biological or physical characteristics. For example, if we care
to look around us, there are Malays whose looks resemble the Chinese, Arabs, or
Indians. Conversely, there are also Chinese who look like Malays. Nevertheless,
they all remain ethnically Chinese, Malay, or Indian in identity despite the fact
that they look nothing like their actual races.
9.2.2 Ethnicity.
An ethnic group refers to a group of people with the same cultural tradition or a
shared sense of identity. This group may be a sub-group which exists in a
country with other ethnic groups. For example, there are several large ethnic
groups in our country (Malay, Chinese, and Indian) as well as smaller sub-ethnic
groups (Dusun, Kadazan, Iban, Bidayuh, Jawa, Bugis, and others). Different
ethnic groups have different cultural characteristics in terms of language,
religion, and customs. Therefore, we may conclude that race is a group of
people differentiated according to biological and physical characteristics,
whereas ethnicity is differentiated according to various cultural perceptions
and elements. For example, Malays and Chinese may be grouped into the same
race (Mongoloid) but may be ethnically divergent due to cultural differences
(please refer to Figure 9.6 and Figure 9.7).
Figure 9.6: Malay dance (zapin)
Source: antiyank.wordpress.com
Figure 9.7: Lion dance
Source: adventuresinshaw.com
ACTIVITY 9.2
Malaysia is rich with ethnic diversity. List as many ethnic groups as
you can think of. Then, try to group them according to race. Are
there ethnic groups which belong to the same racial category?
9.3 ETHNICITY IN SOCIO-CULTURAL RELATIONS
If a group of people remain in their own geographical areas and do not meet
other people, then race or ethnic relations issues will not arise. Ethnic relations
problems occur the moment people from different cultural backgrounds meet
and mingle with each other. Cultural clashes cannot be avoided because people
are always on the move to seek new lands to explore, conquer, or colonize. Some
of these cultural encounters have resulted in wars and conquests. For example,
the Mongols advanced over Europe, Western Asia, and China and in the process
war ensued between them and the locals.
The movement of peoples from one area to another is part of cultural dynamics.
In the modern age, the movement of peoples from one nation to another is very
much influenced by economic factors, that is, to secure a better living in a new
place. There are also political cases involving war fugitives and those who seek
political asylum. These factors cause cultural clashes to ensue due to cultural
differences.
In race and ethnic relations, different groups of people are stratified into:
Upper strata: Usually categorised as the dominant, superordinate, superior,
or majority group.
Lower strata: Usually categorised as the subordinate, inferior, or minority
group. Generally, lower strata racial and ethnic groups are oppressed, denied
basic human rights, and discriminated by the upper strata group (please refer
to Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8: Racial oppression
Source: almasweblog.wordpress.com
The forms of race and ethnic relations may be categorised as follows:
(i) Cooperation: This is motivated by collective interests. Cooperation may
happen between individuals (for example, neighbours) or between groups
(for example, political parties). Cooperation is the bedrock to creating unity
between different ethnic groups.
(ii) Competition: This is the process of beating someone else to gain access to
limited resources, such as work, rank, education, housing, land, and so on.
(iii) Conflict: This refers to a competitive process to acquire something by
weakening, defeating, or destroying the other party with the same interests.
The three forms of race and ethnic relations above raise various implications and
problems, some harmonious and others less so. Therefore, the question which is
raised is: how can different ethnic and racial groups co-exist? The following
social patterns cover a wide range of possibilities that may happen in racial and
ethnic relations all over the world:
(i) Assimilation: In most cases, the minority ethnic or racial group is
assimilated into the larger ethnic or racial group. Assimilation usually
involves cultural assimilation where the minority group adopts a great part
of the majority group's culture.
(ii) Pluralism: Some minority groups refuse to let go of their ethnic or racial
identity because they have a high degree of ethnic or racial consciousness
and are proud of their cultural heritage. At the same time, the dominant
group is willing to allow and encourage the existence of a plurality of
cultures in society.
(iii) Legal protection of minorities: In some countries, minority groups are
protected by law. For example, the Race Relation Act 1965 in England was
formed to safeguard the social and cultural interests of ethnic minorities.
(iv) Population transfer: In a situation where there is great conflict between
racial and ethnic groups, the solution involves transferring the racial and
ethnic population to another location.
(v) Continued subjugation: In some cases, the dominant group desires to retain
its privileges over the minority groups. To accomplish this, they will use
pressure to physically separate and segregate different racial and ethnic
groups.
(vi) Extermination: The extermination of whole populations or genocide is a
widespread social phenomenon in many parts of the world. The methods
used include execution using firearms or deliberately spreading contagious
diseases like small-pox among the target population.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
List and explain the various social patterns which characterise race
and ethnic relations.
9.4 ETHNIC CONFLICT
As mentioned above, race and ethnic relations may be harmonious or hostile.
Several basic factors contribute towards hostile relations between ethnic and
racial groups.
9.4.1 Racism and Ethnocentrism
Racism refers to the assumption that one's own race is superior to that of others.
Ethnocentrism, however, is the belief that elements in one's own culture (such as
religion, values, attitudes, and customs) are superior to that of other cultural groups.
9.4.2 Racism and Ethnocentrism: Functional or Dysfunctional?
The two assumptions mentioned above have hidden functions. Awareness of racial
superiority can create strong bonds of solidarity and togetherness among the
members of a racial or ethnic group. Adolf Hitler used the idea of the superiority of
the Aryan race to gain support for Nazism (please refer to Figure 9.9). On the other
hand, such assumptions may also be dysfunctional. Racism and ethnocentrism
may cause somebody to regard other groups as socially and culturally inferior. If
these assumptions are accepted without question, then it might be used as a
justification to oppress and exploit others. If this happens, then racial and ethnic
Figure 9.9: Adolf Hitler differences may lead to conflict and tension
Source: deviantart.com
in a multicultural society.
9.4.3 Causes of Racism and Ethnocentrism
We know that racism and ethnocentrism may lead to conflict. As such, conflict
theory is useful in analysing the causes which contribute to racism and
ethnocentrism. According to conflict theory, racism and ethnocentrism exist due
to competition between ethnic and racial groups over limited resources. Three
conditions lead to the formation of racism and ethnocentrism:
(i) There must be two or more social groups which may be identified through
physical and cultural differences.
(ii) There must be competition between these groups for valuable resources
such as power, land, or work.
(iii) There must be an imbalance of power between these groups. In other
words, there is one dominant group with greater power to deny the other
groups access to these valuable resources.
The greater the competition, the greater the feelings of racism and ethnocentrism.
The conflict perspective views economic inequalities as the cause for the increase
in racism and ethnocentrism. Conflict theory states that the white race has to
assume that the coloured race (the blacks) is not as dignified as they are in order
to rationalise the act of colonisation. Racist ideology justifies discrimination
towards blacks on the basis that their position is inferior, hence they are deemed
unfit to shoulder high positions, gain an education, or have access to other basic
facilities and services. Is this fair, given that we are all human at heart (please
refer to Figure 9.10).
Figure 9.10: Being a human is not a crime, being a racist?
Source: cjwriter.com
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the formation of ethnocentrism and racism.
9.4.4 Prejudice and Discrimination
Racial and ethnic relations may be further strained by prejudice and
discrimination. PPrejudice refers to a negative view of people from other racial or
ethnic groups. Prejudice leads people to hate others because of ethnic or racial
differences and because they have traits which are deemed undesirable.
Discrimination refers to unfair and unequal treatment towards individuals or
groups on the basis of irrelevant criteria such as gender, race, ethnicity, or social
class. Discrimination happens when one group of people deny other groups of
people their rights because of racial and ethnic differences.
An important factor which brings about prejudice and discrimination is inaccurate
social perception about a racial or ethnic group. This perception is further
aggravated by a an early history of confrontation between these racial and ethnic
groups. Confrontation between these racial and ethnic groups will usually bring
about feelings of us and them. This is the attitude of viewing unfamiliar people
as outsiders, which means that one's relations with them is not equal to that
enjoyed with insiders. These feelings make us consider outsiders as the
enemy, untrustworthy, dubious, and unworthy of equal treatment.
The process of socialisation tends to worsen that perception, especially
when distorted perceptions are passed down from generation to generation.
Moreover, the mass media (television, films, newspapers, and the like) is
responsible for the perpetuation of this wrong perception, giving the
impression that a racial or ethnic group is violent, poor, or evil. For example,
Hollywood tends to portray blacks as Figure 9.11: Blacks as criminals
criminals, drunkards, and the cause of Source: thirdhandprojects.wordpress
various social and economic problems (please refer to Figure 9.11).
9.4.5 Stereotype
Prejudice and discrimination are closely linked to the concept of stereotype.
Stereotypes are presumed notions that form beliefs, expectations, and
expressions that may not be true. Stereotypes usually link negative traits to a
particular ethnic group, for example, the widespread belief that Malays are lazy.
This widely-held belief may have been formed due to past experiences, through
socialisation, or through hearsay.
Stereotypes take effect whenever someone meets people from other ethnic groups for the
first time. Though they may not possess any negative traits as popularly presumed,
stereotypes will cause us to have a bad impression of others from the beginning for no
good reason. For example, most people would have a bad first impression of Negros and
Africans upon encountering them because of the widespread belief that these ethnic groups
tend towards crime and violence. Our first impression would prove to be misguided if we
stop to consider who the current president of Figure 9.12: Barack Obama
the United States is (please refer to Figure 9.12). Source: emuneee.wordpress.com
Ethnic and racial groups which form the minority are not only prejudiced and
discriminated against. In certain cases, they become scapegoats, blamed by the
dominant group for any social, economic, or political problems which may arise
in the country. In Malaysia, immigrants from Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Vietnam, and other countries are often blamed for increasing incidences of crime
and moral depravity in the country.
ACTIVITY 9.3
With your friends, discuss some of the common stereotypes that
you know with an open mind. Is there some truth to these
stereotypes? How did these stereotypes come about?
9.5 ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS AND IDENTITY
Race and ethnic relations is a process which develops through time, beginning
with a preliminary social contract which hopefully would lead to unity. Yet this
process may not turn out this way. To facilitate our discussion, please take a look
at the following race and ethnic relations process which forms a continuum
beginning with segregation and eventually leading to biological integration
(please refer to Figure 9.13):
Figure 9.13: Race and ethnic relations process
(i) Segregation: Race and ethnic relations are characterised by separation
where racial and ethnic groups are physically, socially, and culturally set
apart from each other, for example, the apartheid system in South Africa.
(ii) Accommodation: Racial and ethnic groups co-exist in peace though they
still remain separate. Each group is politically represented and attempt to
compromise with each other to safeguard their rights and interests. This
relationship pattern is usually found in multicultural societies.
(iii) Acculturation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by cultural
assimilation, whereby different racial and ethnic groups borrow and absorb
cultural elements from each other. In extreme cases, the minority groups
tend to accept the dominant group's culture wholesale.
(iv) Assimilation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by structural
assimilation as opposed to cultural assimilation. At this level, minority
groups are absorbed into mainstream society not only at the cultural level
but also economically, educationally, and so on.
(v) Amalgamation: Racial and ethnic relations are characterised by interracial
marriages (please refer to Figure 9.14). As a result, a new race is formed and
unifies the various ethnic and racial groups. Theoretically, an ideal form of
integration happens when biological and racial factors are set aside, as
practiced in Brazil and Hawaii where interracial marriages are the norm.
Figure 9.14: Interracial marriage
Source: blog.dmichaelclary.com
SELF-CHECK 9.3
Explain the meaning of the following concepts:
Segregation
Accommodation
Acculturation
Assimilation
Amalgamation
Race and ethnic studies as a field social science have high practical value
because it is useful in solving racial conflict within the nation.
Race is a concept characterised by the biological features of a group,
whereas ethnicity refers to the cultural elements that differentiate one
social group from another.
Ethnic conflicts have negative consequences to a multicultural society
because it causes disunity and disorder in society. Ultimately, the nation
suffers economically, socially, and politically.
Ethnic unity promises a calmer social atmosphere which is more tolerant of
cultural difference. If this can be achieved, the nation will benefit because
everyone will work together towards realising shared goals.
Accommodation Extermination
Acculturation Legal Protection of Minorities
Assimilation Mongoloid
Assimilation Negroid
Caucasoid Pluralism
Competition Population Transfer
Conflict Prejudice
Continued Subjugation Race
Cooperation Racism
Discrimination Segregation
Ethnic Group Stereotype
Ethnicity Amalgamation
Ethnocentrism
Banton, M. (1987). Racial theories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scupin, R. (Ed.). (2003). Race and ethnicity. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Ting, C. P. (1987). Hubungan ras dan etnik: Satu pengantar. Kuala Lumpur:
Pustaka Dimensi.
Ting, C. P. (1997). Konsep asas sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Van den Berghe, P. L. (1967). Race and racism: A comparative perspective.
New York: John Wiley.
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