Topic 1 - Culture and Society.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define culture;
2. Elaborate on the field of anthropology;
3. Explain the characteristics of culture; and
4. Explain the concept of man as a social being.
INTRODUCTION
John is an American taking a holiday in Malaysia to visit his friend Ahmad. A
few years ago, they used to study together in Yale. At that time, Ahmad related a
lot of stories about Malaysia to John. This has inspired John to visit his friend's
country and to meet his family.
After taking John on a sightseeing trip around the country, Ahmad finally brings
John to his village in Jemapoh, Negeri Sembilan. Upon arriving at Ahmad's
parent's home, John casually walks into the place without taking off his shoes
(please refer to Figure 1.1).
In your opinion, is John a rude person? Actually, John did not mean to be rude.
He is only behaving as he would normally do in the United States, that is,
walking inside the house with his shoes on. This demonstrates that human
behaviour differs according to culture. Cultural sensitivity helps us to act
appropriately in a strange situation, in line with the English proverb: When in
Rome, do as the Romans do. As an anthropology student, you should be
TOPIC 1 CULTURE AND SOCIETY
familiar with the concept of culture and the components that make up culture.
This is what you will learn in Topic 1.
Figure 1.1: Is John rude?
ACTIVITY 1.1
(a) In your opinion, what should have Ahmad done to prevent
this situation from happening?
(b) Think of other examples of cultural clashes.
1.1 DEFINITION OF CULTURE
What do you understand by the word culture? Most people would think of
culture as consisting of dance, music, literature, and the like. You wouldnÊt be
wrong for thinking so, but the concept of culture in anthropology covers more
than just the elements that have been mentioned.
Let us consider one classic definition that is widely used by anthropologists. E.B.
Tylor (please refer to Figure 1.2) asserts that:
Figure 1.2: E. B. Tylor
Source: www.ency.tcv.pl
Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts,
morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.
Tylor's definition focuses on characteristics acquired by man as a result of
growing up in a society with its own unique tradition and culture. As a social
being, man learns about his social role through the process of eenculturation. It is
important for you to understand that this process is not biological in nature
whereby culture is passed down genetically from generation to generation. In
truth, culture is learnt by interacting with other members of society.
For the purpose of our discussion, we will use the following definition of culture:
Culture is a shared way of life that consists of values, beliefs, and taboos
that are passed down from generation to generation in a society through
the process of enculturation.
1.2 FIELD OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
Briefly, what is the study of anthropology? The word anthropology consists of
two Greek words, anthropos (human) and logos (knowledge). As such,
anthropology means knowledge about humans. It follows that social
anthropology is the study of man within society. We can also say that
anthropology is knowledge about man, society, and culture.
Anthropology enquires on what it means to be human, with regards to his
existence as a social being (not a biological being) living in all kinds of societies
all over the world with variations in climate, ecology, and environment. Man as a
social being (please refer to Figure 1.3) is not able to live alone and has to work
with others to achieve his goals. As the saying goes, No man is an island.
Figure 1.3: Man as a social being Source: rapidbi.wordpress.com
The scope of anthropology is quite wide, because if we consider man as a social
being, therefore we also have to consider in some detail other aspects of his
humanity and social existence. This would involve studying other related
disciplines such as sociology, psychology, political science, philosophy, and
literature. In short, anthropology is holistic in scope, covering a comprehensive
range of knowledge.
The word culture comes from the Latin word colere, a verb which means to
cultivate. In this case, culture is cultivated within the individual (consciously or
subconsciously) so that he becomes a social being. In this sense, ccultural
anthropology is knowledge about man who has been cultivated with culture.
What is the relationship between culture and society? Culture refers to aspects of
life that is learnt by or cultivated within a person, and is cognitive and symbolic
in nature. SSociety, on the other hand, refers to a social organisation that involves
patterns of human interaction which determine how we should behave in the
presence of others. In any given social situation, we have to decide socially
whether or not we should address the other person, avoid him altogether, or to
establish status distinctions. The question is: how do give (or withhold) social
recognition to/from someone we meet on the street?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
(a) What is TylorÊs definition of culture?
(b) Explain the process of enculturation.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Having defined culture, we shall now proceed to a discussion about the
characteristics of culture. Ferraro (2006) lists eight characteristics of culture:
(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrated
1.3.1 Culture is Shared
Culture is a social phenomenon that is shared by members of society. This means
that people who share a culture are collectively aware of the cultural meanings of
objects, ideas, or behaviour within the context of that culture. As social beings,
we will feel safe if we can reasonably predict other peopleÊs actions.
As an example, the Malays here highly value politeness and good form when
visiting their neighbours. Normally, the Malays would greet the hosts upon
arriving at their home and shake their hands (please refer to Figure 1.4). This is
understood by the Malays to signify politeness in social interaction. Surely we
would not interpret the outstretched hand as a sign of aggression!
Figure 1.4: Shaking hands
Source: imranmd.blogspot.com
If we do not share a common culture, many awkward and funny incidents may
occur. Reflect on the incident that was described in the introduction to this topic.
John unwittingly becomes a victim of cultural confusion by walking into
AhmadÊs parentsÊ home with his shoes on. This is what we mean by culture
shock, a state of uncertainty or ambiguity faced by a person who is trying to act
in a foreign culture.
1.3.2 Culture is Learned
We are well aware by now that culture is not
inherited genetically. Culture is learned as we are
interacting with our social environment through the
process of enculturation. We acquire culture from
the society in which we were born. Culture is
important because it helps us deal with the
challenges that we face in our lives. In truth,
whatever problems that we may be facing have
already been experienced and resolved by our
elders. As children, we merely have to learn how to
deal with those problems from our seniors.
Let's say you are planning to settle down with your
loved one. Surely you would have learned how to
express your intentions from your culture. For
example, in Malay culture, a couple would
normally get engaged first before tying the knot
(please refer to Figure 1.5). These customs are
preserved from generation to generation through
the process of enculturation.
1.3.3 Culture is Taken for Granted
What do we mean when we say culture is taken for granted? If we give it some
thought, we will realise that culture is so much a part of our being that we often
take its presence for granted. We fail to realise that culture is always influencing
our thoughts and actions because it has become a part of our daily habits. We
perform these habits automatically without much thinking. For example, surely
you must have brushed your teeth when you woke up first thing this morning.
This has become such an integral part of your routine that you do not have to
think about it or direct yourself: I have to brush my teeth this morning.
Figure 1.5: Malay couple
Source: kedahlanie.blogspot.com/2008_11_24_archive.html
ACTIVITY 1.2
List a number of daily activities that you have picked up from your
culture which you take for granted.
The downside is that because we take culture for granted, we would
subconsciously assume that other cultures are similar to ours. This can lead to
conflict due to cultural miscommunication. This is precisely what happened to
John earlier. Without meaning to, John has violated one of the cultural norms of
Malay society.
1.3.4 Culture Influences Biological Processes
As biological beings, we all have the same biological needs. We all need to eat,
drink, sleep, shelter ourselves, dispose of bodily waste, and so on. However, the
manner in which we fulfil those needs depends on our cultural customs.
As social beings, we refer to our culture to perform biological processes in
accordance to accepted norms within our society. For example, the Malays here
practice Islam and so are particular about whether or not their food is halal
(please refer to Figure 1.6). So, if we are planning to have an open house and are
expecting Malay guests, we should make sure that the food to be served is
suitable for their consumption as per their religious beliefs.
Figure 1.6: Halal stamp
Source: usrahkeluarga.blogspot.com
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Distinguish between biological being and social being.
1.3.5 Culture is Always Changing
In our discussions thus far, culture has been presented to you as if it is
unchanging and static. It is not as simple as that. In reality, culture is always
changing from time to time.
Culture changes in the following ways:
(a) Innovation: This refers to new ideas that may be used to advance a society.
If an innovative idea is widely accepted, it will trigger a cultural shift. For
example, the invention of the automobile as the main form of
transportation has revolutionised modern lifestyle and culture.
(b) Cultural diffusion: This happens when elements from one culture begin to
spread to other cultures. For example, the MTV culture (please refer to
Figure 1.7) which sprung from the American music industry has very much
influenced the behaviour of teenagers on a global scale.
Figure 1.7: MTV
Source: ms.wikipedia.org
Cultural diffusion is more likely to spark cultural change than innovation
because it is far easier to imitate a foreign lifestyle than it is to come up with
something that is totally new.
1.3.6 Culture is Universal.
No matter where you are, you will find that many common things are shared by
all cultures. You just have to look around you in multicultural Malaysia: Malays
practice Islam, while the non-Malays (Chinese, Indians, and others) practice
Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions. Despite outward
differences, we all have our own belief systems that preach moral values and
enjoin right action. Our religions may be different, but what binds us together is
our innate need for spiritual guidance and faith in the supernatural.
When we say culture is universal, we mean that all cultures share certain ideas or
concepts that are similar despite surface differences in expression and practice.
George Murdock, an anthropologist who specialises in cross-cultural analysis,
has documented a list of ccultural universals as shown in Table 1.1:
Table 1.1: Cultural universals according to Murdock
age grading faith healing joking pregnancy usages
athletics family kin groups property rights
bodily adornments feasting kin terminology propitiation of
supernatural beings calendar fire making language puberty customs
community organisation folklore magic religious rituals
cooking food taboos marriage residence rules
cooperative labour funeral rites mealtimes sexual restrictions
cosmology games medicine soul concepts
courtship gestures modesty status differentiation
dancing gift giving mourning tool making
decorative art greetings music trade
division of labour hair styles mythology visiting dream
interpretation hospitality numerals weaning
education housing obstetrics weather control
ethics hygiene personal names
ethnobotany incest taboos population policy
etiquette inheritance rules postnatal care
Source: Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective
(5th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Besides the cultural universals presented in Table 1.1, can you
think of other cultural universals?
1.3.7 Culture is Adaptive or Maladaptive
Cultural adaptability ensures the survival of
society. Ages ago, primitive people needed to
gather resources from nature such as food, water,
firewood, animal skin and the like to survive.
Culture allows people to control and manipulate
nature for their own ends. For example, people
invented tools to hunt animals, cut down trees, Figure 1.8: Primitive society
light fires and so on (please refer to Figure 1.8).
Source: twicb.blogspot.com
When culture is adaptive, it ensures the survival
and dominance of man on the face of this earth.
At the same time, culture can also be maladaptive when it fails to contribute to
man's survival. In the long run, negative aspects of culture may lead to man's
destruction. For instance, smoking is a cultural habit that is widely accepted on a
global scale. Regardless of its popularity, I am sure that many of us would agree
that smoking is a maladaptive culture because it adversely affects our health and
pollutes the air that we breathe.
1.3.8 Culture is Integrated.
Culture comprises many aspects that are highly interdependent such as the
economy, education, family, religion, politics, technology, medicine, the arts, and
so on. These aspects are not independent of each other but are in fact mutually
influential. Any change introduced to any one aspect of culture will trigger
changes to the other aspects. This is what is meant when we say that culture is
integrated. As such, anthropology attempts to observe and understand the
workings of society in a holistic way.
For example, when a nation suffers from economic recession, this will also affect
other aspects of society other than the economy. The family institution may break
down as a result of people getting laid off and taking out their frustrations on their
spouse. The education sector, on the other hand, may profit from this situation as
unemployed people may decide to further their studies. At the same time, the need
to save costs will spur inventors to develop new technologies, for instance, the use
of liquefied natural gas in NGV vehicles as fuel instead of petrol.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
(a) Differentiate between adaptive culture and maladaptive culture.
(b) Culture is integrated. Explain this concept with suitable examples.
There are many possible definitions of culture. For the purpose of this
module, culture is defined as a shared way of life which consists of values,
beliefs, and taboos that is passed down from one generation to the next.
Anthropology studies man as a social being (not as a biological being) living
in a variety of societies all over the world with different climates, ecologies
and environments.
In discussing culture, we should be aware of characteristics that define
culture. Those characteristics include:
(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrative
As social beings, we are inevitably influenced by our culture. In our daily
interactions, we learn and practice many things pertaining to our culture.
Culture is a natural part of being human.
Anthropology Culture Shock
Cultural Anthropology Enculturation
Cultural Diffusion Innovation
Cultural Universals Social Anthropology
Culture Society
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define culture;
2. Elaborate on the field of anthropology;
3. Explain the characteristics of culture; and
4. Explain the concept of man as a social being.
INTRODUCTION
John is an American taking a holiday in Malaysia to visit his friend Ahmad. A
few years ago, they used to study together in Yale. At that time, Ahmad related a
lot of stories about Malaysia to John. This has inspired John to visit his friend's
country and to meet his family.
After taking John on a sightseeing trip around the country, Ahmad finally brings
John to his village in Jemapoh, Negeri Sembilan. Upon arriving at Ahmad's
parent's home, John casually walks into the place without taking off his shoes
(please refer to Figure 1.1).
In your opinion, is John a rude person? Actually, John did not mean to be rude.
He is only behaving as he would normally do in the United States, that is,
walking inside the house with his shoes on. This demonstrates that human
behaviour differs according to culture. Cultural sensitivity helps us to act
appropriately in a strange situation, in line with the English proverb: When in
Rome, do as the Romans do. As an anthropology student, you should be
TOPIC 1 CULTURE AND SOCIETY
familiar with the concept of culture and the components that make up culture.
This is what you will learn in Topic 1.
Figure 1.1: Is John rude?
ACTIVITY 1.1
(a) In your opinion, what should have Ahmad done to prevent
this situation from happening?
(b) Think of other examples of cultural clashes.
1.1 DEFINITION OF CULTURE
What do you understand by the word culture? Most people would think of
culture as consisting of dance, music, literature, and the like. You wouldnÊt be
wrong for thinking so, but the concept of culture in anthropology covers more
than just the elements that have been mentioned.
Let us consider one classic definition that is widely used by anthropologists. E.B.
Tylor (please refer to Figure 1.2) asserts that:
Figure 1.2: E. B. Tylor
Source: www.ency.tcv.pl
Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts,
morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.
Tylor's definition focuses on characteristics acquired by man as a result of
growing up in a society with its own unique tradition and culture. As a social
being, man learns about his social role through the process of eenculturation. It is
important for you to understand that this process is not biological in nature
whereby culture is passed down genetically from generation to generation. In
truth, culture is learnt by interacting with other members of society.
For the purpose of our discussion, we will use the following definition of culture:
Culture is a shared way of life that consists of values, beliefs, and taboos
that are passed down from generation to generation in a society through
the process of enculturation.
1.2 FIELD OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
Briefly, what is the study of anthropology? The word anthropology consists of
two Greek words, anthropos (human) and logos (knowledge). As such,
anthropology means knowledge about humans. It follows that social
anthropology is the study of man within society. We can also say that
anthropology is knowledge about man, society, and culture.
Anthropology enquires on what it means to be human, with regards to his
existence as a social being (not a biological being) living in all kinds of societies
all over the world with variations in climate, ecology, and environment. Man as a
social being (please refer to Figure 1.3) is not able to live alone and has to work
with others to achieve his goals. As the saying goes, No man is an island.
Figure 1.3: Man as a social being Source: rapidbi.wordpress.com
The scope of anthropology is quite wide, because if we consider man as a social
being, therefore we also have to consider in some detail other aspects of his
humanity and social existence. This would involve studying other related
disciplines such as sociology, psychology, political science, philosophy, and
literature. In short, anthropology is holistic in scope, covering a comprehensive
range of knowledge.
The word culture comes from the Latin word colere, a verb which means to
cultivate. In this case, culture is cultivated within the individual (consciously or
subconsciously) so that he becomes a social being. In this sense, ccultural
anthropology is knowledge about man who has been cultivated with culture.
What is the relationship between culture and society? Culture refers to aspects of
life that is learnt by or cultivated within a person, and is cognitive and symbolic
in nature. SSociety, on the other hand, refers to a social organisation that involves
patterns of human interaction which determine how we should behave in the
presence of others. In any given social situation, we have to decide socially
whether or not we should address the other person, avoid him altogether, or to
establish status distinctions. The question is: how do give (or withhold) social
recognition to/from someone we meet on the street?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
(a) What is TylorÊs definition of culture?
(b) Explain the process of enculturation.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Having defined culture, we shall now proceed to a discussion about the
characteristics of culture. Ferraro (2006) lists eight characteristics of culture:
(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrated
1.3.1 Culture is Shared
Culture is a social phenomenon that is shared by members of society. This means
that people who share a culture are collectively aware of the cultural meanings of
objects, ideas, or behaviour within the context of that culture. As social beings,
we will feel safe if we can reasonably predict other peopleÊs actions.
As an example, the Malays here highly value politeness and good form when
visiting their neighbours. Normally, the Malays would greet the hosts upon
arriving at their home and shake their hands (please refer to Figure 1.4). This is
understood by the Malays to signify politeness in social interaction. Surely we
would not interpret the outstretched hand as a sign of aggression!
Figure 1.4: Shaking hands
Source: imranmd.blogspot.com
If we do not share a common culture, many awkward and funny incidents may
occur. Reflect on the incident that was described in the introduction to this topic.
John unwittingly becomes a victim of cultural confusion by walking into
AhmadÊs parentsÊ home with his shoes on. This is what we mean by culture
shock, a state of uncertainty or ambiguity faced by a person who is trying to act
in a foreign culture.
1.3.2 Culture is Learned
We are well aware by now that culture is not
inherited genetically. Culture is learned as we are
interacting with our social environment through the
process of enculturation. We acquire culture from
the society in which we were born. Culture is
important because it helps us deal with the
challenges that we face in our lives. In truth,
whatever problems that we may be facing have
already been experienced and resolved by our
elders. As children, we merely have to learn how to
deal with those problems from our seniors.
Let's say you are planning to settle down with your
loved one. Surely you would have learned how to
express your intentions from your culture. For
example, in Malay culture, a couple would
normally get engaged first before tying the knot
(please refer to Figure 1.5). These customs are
preserved from generation to generation through
the process of enculturation.
1.3.3 Culture is Taken for Granted
What do we mean when we say culture is taken for granted? If we give it some
thought, we will realise that culture is so much a part of our being that we often
take its presence for granted. We fail to realise that culture is always influencing
our thoughts and actions because it has become a part of our daily habits. We
perform these habits automatically without much thinking. For example, surely
you must have brushed your teeth when you woke up first thing this morning.
This has become such an integral part of your routine that you do not have to
think about it or direct yourself: I have to brush my teeth this morning.
Figure 1.5: Malay couple
Source: kedahlanie.blogspot.com/2008_11_24_archive.html
ACTIVITY 1.2
List a number of daily activities that you have picked up from your
culture which you take for granted.
The downside is that because we take culture for granted, we would
subconsciously assume that other cultures are similar to ours. This can lead to
conflict due to cultural miscommunication. This is precisely what happened to
John earlier. Without meaning to, John has violated one of the cultural norms of
Malay society.
1.3.4 Culture Influences Biological Processes
As biological beings, we all have the same biological needs. We all need to eat,
drink, sleep, shelter ourselves, dispose of bodily waste, and so on. However, the
manner in which we fulfil those needs depends on our cultural customs.
As social beings, we refer to our culture to perform biological processes in
accordance to accepted norms within our society. For example, the Malays here
practice Islam and so are particular about whether or not their food is halal
(please refer to Figure 1.6). So, if we are planning to have an open house and are
expecting Malay guests, we should make sure that the food to be served is
suitable for their consumption as per their religious beliefs.
Figure 1.6: Halal stamp
Source: usrahkeluarga.blogspot.com
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Distinguish between biological being and social being.
1.3.5 Culture is Always Changing
In our discussions thus far, culture has been presented to you as if it is
unchanging and static. It is not as simple as that. In reality, culture is always
changing from time to time.
Culture changes in the following ways:
(a) Innovation: This refers to new ideas that may be used to advance a society.
If an innovative idea is widely accepted, it will trigger a cultural shift. For
example, the invention of the automobile as the main form of
transportation has revolutionised modern lifestyle and culture.
(b) Cultural diffusion: This happens when elements from one culture begin to
spread to other cultures. For example, the MTV culture (please refer to
Figure 1.7) which sprung from the American music industry has very much
influenced the behaviour of teenagers on a global scale.
Figure 1.7: MTV
Source: ms.wikipedia.org
Cultural diffusion is more likely to spark cultural change than innovation
because it is far easier to imitate a foreign lifestyle than it is to come up with
something that is totally new.
1.3.6 Culture is Universal.
No matter where you are, you will find that many common things are shared by
all cultures. You just have to look around you in multicultural Malaysia: Malays
practice Islam, while the non-Malays (Chinese, Indians, and others) practice
Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions. Despite outward
differences, we all have our own belief systems that preach moral values and
enjoin right action. Our religions may be different, but what binds us together is
our innate need for spiritual guidance and faith in the supernatural.
When we say culture is universal, we mean that all cultures share certain ideas or
concepts that are similar despite surface differences in expression and practice.
George Murdock, an anthropologist who specialises in cross-cultural analysis,
has documented a list of ccultural universals as shown in Table 1.1:
Table 1.1: Cultural universals according to Murdock
age grading faith healing joking pregnancy usages
athletics family kin groups property rights
bodily adornments feasting kin terminology propitiation of
supernatural beings calendar fire making language puberty customs
community organisation folklore magic religious rituals
cooking food taboos marriage residence rules
cooperative labour funeral rites mealtimes sexual restrictions
cosmology games medicine soul concepts
courtship gestures modesty status differentiation
dancing gift giving mourning tool making
decorative art greetings music trade
division of labour hair styles mythology visiting dream
interpretation hospitality numerals weaning
education housing obstetrics weather control
ethics hygiene personal names
ethnobotany incest taboos population policy
etiquette inheritance rules postnatal care
Source: Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective
(5th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Besides the cultural universals presented in Table 1.1, can you
think of other cultural universals?
1.3.7 Culture is Adaptive or Maladaptive
Cultural adaptability ensures the survival of
society. Ages ago, primitive people needed to
gather resources from nature such as food, water,
firewood, animal skin and the like to survive.
Culture allows people to control and manipulate
nature for their own ends. For example, people
invented tools to hunt animals, cut down trees, Figure 1.8: Primitive society
light fires and so on (please refer to Figure 1.8).
Source: twicb.blogspot.com
When culture is adaptive, it ensures the survival
and dominance of man on the face of this earth.
At the same time, culture can also be maladaptive when it fails to contribute to
man's survival. In the long run, negative aspects of culture may lead to man's
destruction. For instance, smoking is a cultural habit that is widely accepted on a
global scale. Regardless of its popularity, I am sure that many of us would agree
that smoking is a maladaptive culture because it adversely affects our health and
pollutes the air that we breathe.
1.3.8 Culture is Integrated.
Culture comprises many aspects that are highly interdependent such as the
economy, education, family, religion, politics, technology, medicine, the arts, and
so on. These aspects are not independent of each other but are in fact mutually
influential. Any change introduced to any one aspect of culture will trigger
changes to the other aspects. This is what is meant when we say that culture is
integrated. As such, anthropology attempts to observe and understand the
workings of society in a holistic way.
For example, when a nation suffers from economic recession, this will also affect
other aspects of society other than the economy. The family institution may break
down as a result of people getting laid off and taking out their frustrations on their
spouse. The education sector, on the other hand, may profit from this situation as
unemployed people may decide to further their studies. At the same time, the need
to save costs will spur inventors to develop new technologies, for instance, the use
of liquefied natural gas in NGV vehicles as fuel instead of petrol.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
(a) Differentiate between adaptive culture and maladaptive culture.
(b) Culture is integrated. Explain this concept with suitable examples.
There are many possible definitions of culture. For the purpose of this
module, culture is defined as a shared way of life which consists of values,
beliefs, and taboos that is passed down from one generation to the next.
Anthropology studies man as a social being (not as a biological being) living
in a variety of societies all over the world with different climates, ecologies
and environments.
In discussing culture, we should be aware of characteristics that define
culture. Those characteristics include:
(i) Culture is shared
(ii) Culture is learned
(iii) Culture is taken for granted
(iv) Culture influences biological processes
(v) Culture is always changing
(vi) Culture is universal
(vii) Culture is adaptive or maladaptive
(viii) Culture is integrative
As social beings, we are inevitably influenced by our culture. In our daily
interactions, we learn and practice many things pertaining to our culture.
Culture is a natural part of being human.
Anthropology Culture Shock
Cultural Anthropology Enculturation
Cultural Diffusion Innovation
Cultural Universals Social Anthropology
Culture Society
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
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