Topic 2 - Research Methodology in Anthropology.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between anthropological methods and sociological methods;
2. Explain the concept of ethnography and ethnographic techniques;
3. Interpret data according to the emic and etic perspectives; and
4. Explain the link between theory and research methodology.
INTRODUCTION
John wakes up in the middle of the night, restless and tired. Mosquitoes are
buzzing around him and his body is marked with spots. His body aches from
sleeping on the thin mattress. To add salt to injury, his stomach is grumbling
from the sambal belacan served by his hosts. John leaves his room in search of a
washroom. Oh dear! The washroom is located outside the house in the dark by
the bush. The cries of wild animals in the middle of the night are a cause of
concern for John. He is that close to quitting and going back to sleep,
uncomfortable as it may be.
How did I end up here? moaned John in his heart (please refer to Figure 2.1). His
thoughts begin to wander back to his homeland, the United States of America,
where he is accustomed to all sorts of modern comforts. He misses his air-
conditioned room and warm bed, no blood-sucking mosquitoes, delicious Western
food (steaks and fish and chips) that agrees with his stomach. A few steps away is
his washroom, not too far away from his clean and well-lighted room.
Figure 2.1: How did I end up here?
Great dreams demand great sacrifices, and this is precisely what it takes for John
to achieve his target of being a renowned anthropologist. John is studying a rural
Malay society to complete his PhD thesis in cultural anthropology. How about
you? Are you as determined as John? Are you willing to leave your creature
comforts for the sake of studying a foreign culture? If your answer is yes, maybe
you are ready to embark on anthropological research.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Reflect on the scenario faced by John. Are you willing to face the
trials and challenges that come with anthropological research?
Discuss with your friends.
2.1 METHODOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
John hails from a modern, progressive society to study another society that is
totally different and utterly foreign compared to his. Here we can see that there
are many kinds of culture and society in this world, each with its own distinctive
lifestyle (please refer to Figures 2.2 and 2.3).
Figure 2.2: Modern city Figure 2.3: Village
Source: www.mohdhilmi.com
This difference is also reflected in the different approaches used in
anthropological and sociological research. Both fields share many similarities, yet
at the same time, we must also note the differences. Table 2.1 lists the differences
between anthropological and sociological methodology:
Table 2.1: Methodological differences in anthropology and sociology
Anthropological methodology Sociological methodology
Studies pre-modern society, usually outside Europe Studies modern society in developed
countries Small-scale societies Large-scale societies Descriptive Quantitative
Holistic Specific
Anthropological research is usually focused on non-European societies, whereas
sociological research is concentrated on modern and developed societies.
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead (please refer to Figure
2.4) study exotic peoples like the Trobriand islanders and the Samoans respectively.
Societies outside Europe are small in scale and possess rudimentary tools and
technology compared to modern societies.
In the 40s and 50s, a number of noted anthropologists took the trouble to study
our local customs. They include Raymond William Firth who wrote Malay Fishermen: Their Peasant Economy(1966) and
Michael G. Swift who wrote Malay Peasant Society in Jelebu(1965).
Figure 2.4: Margaret MeadSource: upload.wikimedia.org
Sociologists like William Foote Whyte study social groups in modern society.
Unlike anthropology, the modern societies studied by sociologists are larger in
scale, urban in nature, and possess the latest technology and gadgets.
Anthropological methodology is descriptive in nature, meaning it attempts to
describe culture through ethnographic methods. Research findings are reported
in writing. SSosiological methodology, on the other hand, is more quantitative in
nature. This means that sociological research is highly dependent on statistics,
census figures, questionnaires, and sampling. As such, sociological findings are
often presented in numerical form as statistics, charts, graphs, and the like.
Anthropological methodology is holistic in approach because it studies culture
comprehensively. It attempts to explain the interrelatedness of social institutions
such as the economy, family, the arts, and so on. Conversely, sociological
methodology tends to be more specific in scope, studying particular aspects of
modern society. For example, William Foote WhyteÊs classic case study Street
Corner Society describes criminal activities done by Italian immigrants in Boston.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Differentiate between anthropological methodology and
sociological methodology.
2.2 ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic research helps us to develop knowledge about cultural diversity
and serves as a platform to formulate theories about social behaviour.
Ethnography involves fieldwork in a foreign culture. It attempts to identify,
compare, and explain cultural differences and similarities. Many ethnographic
techniques are used to study culture:
Participant observation
Genealogical method
Key informant
Life history
Longitudinal studies
2.2.1 Participant Observation
Anthropologists must be interested to discover new and foreign cultures. He
must be alert to daily routines, extraordinary happenings, seasonal events, and
social behaviour while in the field. Everything that is observed must be recorded
in detail. This is what is referred to as pparticipant observation.
As soon as the anthropologist arrives at the field, he will experience many things that is
strange and foreign according to his cultural perception (please refer to Figure 2.5). He
should immediately record these initial observations, because as time goes on, he will
be rendered immune to these elements which originally stood out for him. Usually, an
anthropologist will reside in the field for at least a year to observe and study a culture
through its seasonal cycle.
Figure 2.5: A foreign culture
Source: www.montereybay.com
Anthropologists must be disciplined enough to regularly take notes in a diary
about whatever aspects of culture that are being observed. Nothing is trivial in
anthropology! Smells, sounds, eating habits and the like are raw material for
anthropological writing. The people being studied are so much a part of their
culture that they are no longer consciously aware of their cultural habits. For the
anthropologist, however, these things are still new to him and it becomes his
responsibility to accurately describe what he observes.
Bronislaw Malinowski (please refer to Figure 2.6), an anthropologist famed for his work
Argonauts of the Western Pacific(1922), asserts that the task of the ethnographer is to grasp
the nativeÊs point of view, his relation to life, to realise hisvision of his world. This means that
the ethnographer must attempt to faithfully represent the cultural viewpoint of the society
under study, and not impose his own prejudiced perspective on his subjects. By
immersing himself in a foreign culture, he will be able to discover the truth about that culture
from the local perspective.
Figure 2.6: Bronislaw Malinowski
Source: www.csuchico.edu
Unlike the pure sciences, anthropology cannot be expected to place foreign
cultures in a laboratory for experimentation. The society under study must be
observed in its natural environment in the field. The ethnographer must actually
interact with his subjects and expose himself directly to the culture that he is
studying. Unlike the laboratory researcher in his white lab coat, he cannot afford
to distance himself from his test subjects and watch from afar.
This is why participant observation is such a popular and classic method in
anthropological fieldwork. This method requires the ethnographer to be present
in the field for an extended period of time to develop rrapport with the locals.
This is to avoid the local community from feeling suspicious and anxious around
the ethnographer.
Due to his increased involvement with the local community, it is not impossible for the
ethnographer to adopt the habits of his research subjects. His mannerisms, speech,
diet, even his body smell will eventually reflect the culture that he is studying. When
the ethnographer becomes deeply involved with the local culture, he may become almost
indistinguishable from the locals. Becoming native is a term used by Western
ethnographers to describe the profound change that happens to certain researchers
who have been in the field for too long. For example, Raymond W. Firth, who conducted
field research in Kelantan and Terengganu from 1939 to 1940, is seen here wearing kain
pelikat, a form of dress usually worn by rural
Figure 2.7: Becoming native Malays (please refer to Figure 2.7).
Source: Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI)
To establish rapport, one has to gradually introduce oneself into the local
community and participate in its rituals and customs. This is in line with the
English proverb: When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Therefore, it follows
that when you are in Malaysia, do as the Malaysians do! Remember John from
Topic 1? He should have been more sensitive and observant of Malay culture;
this show of cultural respect will help him to build rapport with Ahmad's family.
Besides, immersion in the local culture helps the ethnographer to feel for himself
what the locals go through as part of their daily experience. So if the society
under study is an agricultural community, then the ethnographer should
volunteer to plow the fields along with the other farmers. This is so that he will
experience first hand the hardships endured by farmers. If he doesnÊt care to live
like a farmer, how will the ethnographer ever write sincerely about the realities
of agricultural life? Observation is not equal to action.
Remember Raymond Firth (the anthropologist wearing kain pelikat)? He spent a
lot of time with his wife mingling with the natives:
both of us spent much time in observing and taking part in the
general activities of the people - in their houses, in the rice fields, in the
market; at weddings, funerals and circumcision feasts; at shadow plays
and mediumistic performances for the cure of the sick; and above all,
up and down the beach, which was a highway, a gathering-place and
the scene of much work (Firth 1966: 358).
Thomas H. Eriksen (please refer to Figure 2.8), a Norwegian anthropologist, once
conducted fieldwork in the West Indies. While he was there, he worked hard cutting
and carrying sugar canes under the hot, blistering sun. He admits that it was brutal
work given the conditions, but it was well worth the effort. He needed to know what it
was like for the lower class workers toiling in the sugar cane plantations. The only way to
do so was to become one himself.
Figure 2.8: Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Source: ww.aschehougagency.no
Anthropological research takes up a lot of time and effort. Malinowski was in the
field for more than two years. So was Raymond Firth. The time required is
justified because anthropologists need to study a society holistically to cover all
possible cultural ground. Anthropologists are expected to observe social
processes that continue over an extended period of time. Most religious rituals
and ceremonies must be observed directly and in the context of its annual cycle
for its cultural significance to be understood. In other words, the anthropologist
cannot afford to have a snapshot view of a society and pretend that it tells the
whole story of that culture.
2.2.2 Genealogical Method
The ggenealogical method involves tracing the genealogical descent of individuals
in a society and understanding the kinship links between families. Anthropologists
have developed a complex system of symbols and notation to be used in studying
kinship, descent, and marriage. Genealogy is an important component of social
organisation in pre-industrial societies where its members live and interact with
kin and relatives on a daily basis. Genealogical data helps anthropologists to
understand social relations between members of society and is useful in
reconstructing the social history of that society .
In pre-industrial societies, kinship is basic to social life. Everybody is related to
somebody. These kinship ties determine oneÊs social, economic and political
rights and so should not be underestimated.
Through marriage, kinship ties can be expanded. Kinship ties form the foundation
of social organisation becaus e it can establish economic and political cooperation
between different t ribes that w ere previously unrelated to each other socially. This
concept w ill be discussed in greater detail in Topic 3: Kinship and Marriage.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
It is useful to study the genealogy of families in pre-industrial
societies. Why?
2.2.3 Key Informant
All societies have some experienced or talented members who can provide complete and useful
information about certain aspects of their culture. These people are called key informants (please refer to
Figure 2.9). They are especially useful because they can tell the anthropologist exactly what he needs to know
about the society that he is studying. Without key informants, it is difficult for the ethnographer to
understand the significance of certain behaviours or cultural symbols. Moreover, key informants may
know others who are more knowledgeable and well-versed about the subject in question. It is not
surprising for the ethnographer and the kkey informant to become close friends way after the research is over.
Figure 2.9: Key informant
Source: anthropology.si.edu
2.2.4 Life History
In pre-industrial societies, there are all sorts of individuals with a variety of
interests. Some locals are more interested in helping the ethnographer than
others. They are also more outstanding and interesting compared to the rest. This
is why their life histories are more interesting and can provide a more colourful
perspective on the cultural life of our society. It is no surprise that the researcher
might want to document the life history of certain individuals in that community.
This enables us to know a culture from a more personal and intimate angle. Life
histories reveal how certain individuals think, react, and contribute to the
changes that influence their lives.
2.2.5 Longitudinal Studies
Some time ago, fieldwork was limited by geographical factors. It may take a long
time to reach a site, and visits are rarely repeated. But nowadays, ethnographic
reports often employ data from periodical visits. Longitudinal studies are long-
term research conducted on a society over an extended period of time over
repeated visits. This technique allows the ethnographer to trace changes and
make comparisons in terms of time and space.
ACTIVITY 2.2
(a) Using key informants and life histories may give you a more
personal and colourful picture of the culture that you are
studying. To what extent can you rely on key informants and
life histories? Discuss this with your friends.
(b) List down other anthropological research techniques that are
not covered in this topic.
2.3 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Ethnographic research attempts to collect data about beliefs, perceptions, and
viewpoints of a society. In interpreting data, anthropologists must take into
consideration the following:
(i) Emic perspective
(ii) Etic perspective
(iii) Ethnocentric bias
2.3.1 Emic Perspective
The eemic perspective studies local thinking patterns. Questions often asked include:
How do they perceive and categorise their world?
What are the social rules that determine their behaviour?
What are some of the things that they value in their culture?
How do they imagine and represent their social reality?
Through the emic perspective, ethnographers attempt to explain the local
viewpoint by referring to certain members of society for further elaboration.
Sources for in-depth information include key informants and life histories. For
example, some cultures believe that illness is caused by evil spirits, ancestors, or
witch doctors (please refer to Figure 2.10). This explanation reflects the emic
perspective which favours the local viewpoint and the cultural meanings
adopted by that culture.
Figure 2.10: Witch doctor
Source: www.viperalley.com
Figure 2.11: Medical doctor
Source: repairstemcell.wordpress.com
2.3.2 Etic Perspective
The eetic perspective focuses the researcherÊs viewpoint over the local viewpoint.
This approach assumes that the members of a social group are not able to
objectively describe their culture because they are too involved in that culture.
For example, some societies believe that illness is caused by evil spirits and can
be cured by witch doctors. Scientifically (the etic perspective), the ethnographer
knows that diseases are caused by germs and can be cured by medical doctors
(please refer to Figure 2.11).
Here, the ethnographer decides for himself what is considered worthy of study.
He should try to be as objective as possible and be fair to the culture that he is
observing. However, it should be noted that the ethnographer is also human and
as such is also affected by bias and prejudices. Therefore, perfect objectivity is not
to be expected. It is hoped that intensive training in anthropology would
somewhat reduce bias in fieldwork.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Differentiate between the etic perspective and the emic
perspective.
2.3.3 Ethnocentric Bias
Anthropology teaches that no single culture is superior to other cultures. Claims
that Western culture is better than non-Western cultures are not true from the
anthropological point of view. Such claims demonstrate ethnocentric bias,
meaning that oneÊs assessment of other cultures is influenced by oneÊs own
cultural standards.
Each culture must be viewed according to the unique lens of that own society,
and not according to the distorted lens of other societies. Cultural relativism
appreciates the fact that other cultures have their own strengths and operate
according to its own internal logic.
2.4 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION IN RESEARCH
As more data is collected about foreign cultures, we gain more knowledge which
allows us to explain cultural differences and similarities. A theory is a statement
that describes relationships between phenomena that are studied.
Anthropological theories help us to interpret data, explain cultural phenomena,
and make predictions about social behaviour.
Even if a theory cannot be proven, it may still be useful for research purposes
because it can be used to generate hypotheses. A hypothesis is an unproven
statement that may be used as a springboard for further research. Hypotheses
must be tested empirically, and if proven, it will strengthen a theory. If not, the
theory may be revised or rejected altogether.
There are many anthropological theories, but for the purpose of this topic, we
will only focus on three well-known theories:
(i) Evolutionary theory
(ii) Diffusion theory
(iii) Functionalism
2.4.1 Evolutionary Theory
Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan (please refer to Figure 2.12) contributed tremendously to the
development of evolutionary theory. This theory owes a lot to Charles DarwinÊs concept of biological
evolution. Evolutionary theory basically states that all societies go through the same developmental stages
in the same sequence. Cultural evolution is assumed to progress in a linear fashion (one-directional) and
will always bring development and cultural improvement. Lewis Henry Morgan used concepts
such as savagery, barbarism, and civilisation to categorise the level of technological development for
a particular society. This theory is accused of being ethnocentric because it assumes that Western
civilisation is the only standard by which human development and achievement is measured.
2.4.2 Diffusion Theory
Figure 2.12: Lewis Henry Morgan
Source: www.union.edu
Diffusion theory is pioneered by anthropologists such as Grafton Elliot Smith (please refer to Figure 2.13), W. J.
Perry, Fritz Graebner, and Wilhelm Schmidt. This theory assumes that societies in this world tend to borrow ideas
and technology from other societies through the process of cultural diffusion. This theory is now widely
discredited because it is too dependent on the concept of cultural diffusion to explain the process of cultural
change. Smith and Perry, for instance, suggested that Elliot Smith everything that was ever invented in this world could be
traced back to ancient Egyptian civilisation. Is this a reasonable assumption to make? Think about it.
Figure 2.13: Grafton
Source: www.cdb.ucl.ac.uk
2.4.3 Functionalism
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (please refer to Figure 2.14)
were the founding fathers of functionalism. This theory attempts to prove that cultural elements in a
society positively contribute to individual and social well-being. Functionalists imagine society to be just
like a biological organism which consists of interrelated parts that depend on each other. Because
of the integrated nature of society, any changes that occur to one part will necessarily trigger changes in
other parts of society. Functionalism has a strong Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
foundation in fieldwork thanks to solid research done by ethnographers like Bronislaw Malinowski.
Figure 2.14: Alfred
Source: picasaweb.google.com
ACTIVITY 2.3
Based on the theories that we have discussed, try to formulate some
hypotheses about cultural phenomena. In your opinion, does your
hypothesis prove or disprove existing theories?
. There is a difference between anthropological methodology and sociological
methodology. Anthropological research normally revolves around small-
scale non-European societies, and is descriptive and holistic in nature.
Sociological research, on the other hand, revolves around large-scale modern
societies, and is quantitative and specific in nature.
. Ethnography involves fieldwork in a certain society. Ethnographic techniques
include participant observation, genealogy, key informant, life history, and
longitudinal studies.
. Data in anthropological research can be interpreted according to the emic
perspective (focused on local viewpoint) or the etic perspective (focused on
the researcherÊs viewpoint). Anthropologists should try their best to prevent
ethnocentric bias from influencing their research.
. Theory is an important springboard for furthering research. Some well-known anthropological theories include evolu tionary theory, diffusion
theory, and functionalism.
Anthropological Method Genealogical Method Becoming Native Hypothesis
Cultural Relativism Key Informant Diffusion Theory Life History
Emic Perspective Longitudinal Studies Ethnocentric Bias Participant Observation
Ethnography Rapport Etic Perspective Sociological Method Evolutionary Theory Theory
Functionalism
Eriksen, T. H. (1995). Small places, large issues: An introduction to social and cultural anthropology. London: Pluto Press.
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Firth, R. W. (1990) [1966]. Nelayan Melayu: Ekonomi tani mereka. Translators
Yaacob Harun dan Noor Hasnah Moin. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between anthropological methods and sociological methods;
2. Explain the concept of ethnography and ethnographic techniques;
3. Interpret data according to the emic and etic perspectives; and
4. Explain the link between theory and research methodology.
INTRODUCTION
John wakes up in the middle of the night, restless and tired. Mosquitoes are
buzzing around him and his body is marked with spots. His body aches from
sleeping on the thin mattress. To add salt to injury, his stomach is grumbling
from the sambal belacan served by his hosts. John leaves his room in search of a
washroom. Oh dear! The washroom is located outside the house in the dark by
the bush. The cries of wild animals in the middle of the night are a cause of
concern for John. He is that close to quitting and going back to sleep,
uncomfortable as it may be.
How did I end up here? moaned John in his heart (please refer to Figure 2.1). His
thoughts begin to wander back to his homeland, the United States of America,
where he is accustomed to all sorts of modern comforts. He misses his air-
conditioned room and warm bed, no blood-sucking mosquitoes, delicious Western
food (steaks and fish and chips) that agrees with his stomach. A few steps away is
his washroom, not too far away from his clean and well-lighted room.
Figure 2.1: How did I end up here?
Great dreams demand great sacrifices, and this is precisely what it takes for John
to achieve his target of being a renowned anthropologist. John is studying a rural
Malay society to complete his PhD thesis in cultural anthropology. How about
you? Are you as determined as John? Are you willing to leave your creature
comforts for the sake of studying a foreign culture? If your answer is yes, maybe
you are ready to embark on anthropological research.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Reflect on the scenario faced by John. Are you willing to face the
trials and challenges that come with anthropological research?
Discuss with your friends.
2.1 METHODOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
John hails from a modern, progressive society to study another society that is
totally different and utterly foreign compared to his. Here we can see that there
are many kinds of culture and society in this world, each with its own distinctive
lifestyle (please refer to Figures 2.2 and 2.3).
Figure 2.2: Modern city Figure 2.3: Village
Source: www.mohdhilmi.com
This difference is also reflected in the different approaches used in
anthropological and sociological research. Both fields share many similarities, yet
at the same time, we must also note the differences. Table 2.1 lists the differences
between anthropological and sociological methodology:
Table 2.1: Methodological differences in anthropology and sociology
Anthropological methodology Sociological methodology
Studies pre-modern society, usually outside Europe Studies modern society in developed
countries Small-scale societies Large-scale societies Descriptive Quantitative
Holistic Specific
Anthropological research is usually focused on non-European societies, whereas
sociological research is concentrated on modern and developed societies.
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead (please refer to Figure
2.4) study exotic peoples like the Trobriand islanders and the Samoans respectively.
Societies outside Europe are small in scale and possess rudimentary tools and
technology compared to modern societies.
In the 40s and 50s, a number of noted anthropologists took the trouble to study
our local customs. They include Raymond William Firth who wrote Malay Fishermen: Their Peasant Economy(1966) and
Michael G. Swift who wrote Malay Peasant Society in Jelebu(1965).
Figure 2.4: Margaret MeadSource: upload.wikimedia.org
Sociologists like William Foote Whyte study social groups in modern society.
Unlike anthropology, the modern societies studied by sociologists are larger in
scale, urban in nature, and possess the latest technology and gadgets.
Anthropological methodology is descriptive in nature, meaning it attempts to
describe culture through ethnographic methods. Research findings are reported
in writing. SSosiological methodology, on the other hand, is more quantitative in
nature. This means that sociological research is highly dependent on statistics,
census figures, questionnaires, and sampling. As such, sociological findings are
often presented in numerical form as statistics, charts, graphs, and the like.
Anthropological methodology is holistic in approach because it studies culture
comprehensively. It attempts to explain the interrelatedness of social institutions
such as the economy, family, the arts, and so on. Conversely, sociological
methodology tends to be more specific in scope, studying particular aspects of
modern society. For example, William Foote WhyteÊs classic case study Street
Corner Society describes criminal activities done by Italian immigrants in Boston.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Differentiate between anthropological methodology and
sociological methodology.
2.2 ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic research helps us to develop knowledge about cultural diversity
and serves as a platform to formulate theories about social behaviour.
Ethnography involves fieldwork in a foreign culture. It attempts to identify,
compare, and explain cultural differences and similarities. Many ethnographic
techniques are used to study culture:
Participant observation
Genealogical method
Key informant
Life history
Longitudinal studies
2.2.1 Participant Observation
Anthropologists must be interested to discover new and foreign cultures. He
must be alert to daily routines, extraordinary happenings, seasonal events, and
social behaviour while in the field. Everything that is observed must be recorded
in detail. This is what is referred to as pparticipant observation.
As soon as the anthropologist arrives at the field, he will experience many things that is
strange and foreign according to his cultural perception (please refer to Figure 2.5). He
should immediately record these initial observations, because as time goes on, he will
be rendered immune to these elements which originally stood out for him. Usually, an
anthropologist will reside in the field for at least a year to observe and study a culture
through its seasonal cycle.
Figure 2.5: A foreign culture
Source: www.montereybay.com
Anthropologists must be disciplined enough to regularly take notes in a diary
about whatever aspects of culture that are being observed. Nothing is trivial in
anthropology! Smells, sounds, eating habits and the like are raw material for
anthropological writing. The people being studied are so much a part of their
culture that they are no longer consciously aware of their cultural habits. For the
anthropologist, however, these things are still new to him and it becomes his
responsibility to accurately describe what he observes.
Bronislaw Malinowski (please refer to Figure 2.6), an anthropologist famed for his work
Argonauts of the Western Pacific(1922), asserts that the task of the ethnographer is to grasp
the nativeÊs point of view, his relation to life, to realise hisvision of his world. This means that
the ethnographer must attempt to faithfully represent the cultural viewpoint of the society
under study, and not impose his own prejudiced perspective on his subjects. By
immersing himself in a foreign culture, he will be able to discover the truth about that culture
from the local perspective.
Figure 2.6: Bronislaw Malinowski
Source: www.csuchico.edu
Unlike the pure sciences, anthropology cannot be expected to place foreign
cultures in a laboratory for experimentation. The society under study must be
observed in its natural environment in the field. The ethnographer must actually
interact with his subjects and expose himself directly to the culture that he is
studying. Unlike the laboratory researcher in his white lab coat, he cannot afford
to distance himself from his test subjects and watch from afar.
This is why participant observation is such a popular and classic method in
anthropological fieldwork. This method requires the ethnographer to be present
in the field for an extended period of time to develop rrapport with the locals.
This is to avoid the local community from feeling suspicious and anxious around
the ethnographer.
Due to his increased involvement with the local community, it is not impossible for the
ethnographer to adopt the habits of his research subjects. His mannerisms, speech,
diet, even his body smell will eventually reflect the culture that he is studying. When
the ethnographer becomes deeply involved with the local culture, he may become almost
indistinguishable from the locals. Becoming native is a term used by Western
ethnographers to describe the profound change that happens to certain researchers
who have been in the field for too long. For example, Raymond W. Firth, who conducted
field research in Kelantan and Terengganu from 1939 to 1940, is seen here wearing kain
pelikat, a form of dress usually worn by rural
Figure 2.7: Becoming native Malays (please refer to Figure 2.7).
Source: Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI)
To establish rapport, one has to gradually introduce oneself into the local
community and participate in its rituals and customs. This is in line with the
English proverb: When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Therefore, it follows
that when you are in Malaysia, do as the Malaysians do! Remember John from
Topic 1? He should have been more sensitive and observant of Malay culture;
this show of cultural respect will help him to build rapport with Ahmad's family.
Besides, immersion in the local culture helps the ethnographer to feel for himself
what the locals go through as part of their daily experience. So if the society
under study is an agricultural community, then the ethnographer should
volunteer to plow the fields along with the other farmers. This is so that he will
experience first hand the hardships endured by farmers. If he doesnÊt care to live
like a farmer, how will the ethnographer ever write sincerely about the realities
of agricultural life? Observation is not equal to action.
Remember Raymond Firth (the anthropologist wearing kain pelikat)? He spent a
lot of time with his wife mingling with the natives:
both of us spent much time in observing and taking part in the
general activities of the people - in their houses, in the rice fields, in the
market; at weddings, funerals and circumcision feasts; at shadow plays
and mediumistic performances for the cure of the sick; and above all,
up and down the beach, which was a highway, a gathering-place and
the scene of much work (Firth 1966: 358).
Thomas H. Eriksen (please refer to Figure 2.8), a Norwegian anthropologist, once
conducted fieldwork in the West Indies. While he was there, he worked hard cutting
and carrying sugar canes under the hot, blistering sun. He admits that it was brutal
work given the conditions, but it was well worth the effort. He needed to know what it
was like for the lower class workers toiling in the sugar cane plantations. The only way to
do so was to become one himself.
Figure 2.8: Thomas Hylland Eriksen
Source: ww.aschehougagency.no
Anthropological research takes up a lot of time and effort. Malinowski was in the
field for more than two years. So was Raymond Firth. The time required is
justified because anthropologists need to study a society holistically to cover all
possible cultural ground. Anthropologists are expected to observe social
processes that continue over an extended period of time. Most religious rituals
and ceremonies must be observed directly and in the context of its annual cycle
for its cultural significance to be understood. In other words, the anthropologist
cannot afford to have a snapshot view of a society and pretend that it tells the
whole story of that culture.
2.2.2 Genealogical Method
The ggenealogical method involves tracing the genealogical descent of individuals
in a society and understanding the kinship links between families. Anthropologists
have developed a complex system of symbols and notation to be used in studying
kinship, descent, and marriage. Genealogy is an important component of social
organisation in pre-industrial societies where its members live and interact with
kin and relatives on a daily basis. Genealogical data helps anthropologists to
understand social relations between members of society and is useful in
reconstructing the social history of that society .
In pre-industrial societies, kinship is basic to social life. Everybody is related to
somebody. These kinship ties determine oneÊs social, economic and political
rights and so should not be underestimated.
Through marriage, kinship ties can be expanded. Kinship ties form the foundation
of social organisation becaus e it can establish economic and political cooperation
between different t ribes that w ere previously unrelated to each other socially. This
concept w ill be discussed in greater detail in Topic 3: Kinship and Marriage.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
It is useful to study the genealogy of families in pre-industrial
societies. Why?
2.2.3 Key Informant
All societies have some experienced or talented members who can provide complete and useful
information about certain aspects of their culture. These people are called key informants (please refer to
Figure 2.9). They are especially useful because they can tell the anthropologist exactly what he needs to know
about the society that he is studying. Without key informants, it is difficult for the ethnographer to
understand the significance of certain behaviours or cultural symbols. Moreover, key informants may
know others who are more knowledgeable and well-versed about the subject in question. It is not
surprising for the ethnographer and the kkey informant to become close friends way after the research is over.
Figure 2.9: Key informant
Source: anthropology.si.edu
2.2.4 Life History
In pre-industrial societies, there are all sorts of individuals with a variety of
interests. Some locals are more interested in helping the ethnographer than
others. They are also more outstanding and interesting compared to the rest. This
is why their life histories are more interesting and can provide a more colourful
perspective on the cultural life of our society. It is no surprise that the researcher
might want to document the life history of certain individuals in that community.
This enables us to know a culture from a more personal and intimate angle. Life
histories reveal how certain individuals think, react, and contribute to the
changes that influence their lives.
2.2.5 Longitudinal Studies
Some time ago, fieldwork was limited by geographical factors. It may take a long
time to reach a site, and visits are rarely repeated. But nowadays, ethnographic
reports often employ data from periodical visits. Longitudinal studies are long-
term research conducted on a society over an extended period of time over
repeated visits. This technique allows the ethnographer to trace changes and
make comparisons in terms of time and space.
ACTIVITY 2.2
(a) Using key informants and life histories may give you a more
personal and colourful picture of the culture that you are
studying. To what extent can you rely on key informants and
life histories? Discuss this with your friends.
(b) List down other anthropological research techniques that are
not covered in this topic.
2.3 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Ethnographic research attempts to collect data about beliefs, perceptions, and
viewpoints of a society. In interpreting data, anthropologists must take into
consideration the following:
(i) Emic perspective
(ii) Etic perspective
(iii) Ethnocentric bias
2.3.1 Emic Perspective
The eemic perspective studies local thinking patterns. Questions often asked include:
How do they perceive and categorise their world?
What are the social rules that determine their behaviour?
What are some of the things that they value in their culture?
How do they imagine and represent their social reality?
Through the emic perspective, ethnographers attempt to explain the local
viewpoint by referring to certain members of society for further elaboration.
Sources for in-depth information include key informants and life histories. For
example, some cultures believe that illness is caused by evil spirits, ancestors, or
witch doctors (please refer to Figure 2.10). This explanation reflects the emic
perspective which favours the local viewpoint and the cultural meanings
adopted by that culture.
Figure 2.10: Witch doctor
Source: www.viperalley.com
Figure 2.11: Medical doctor
Source: repairstemcell.wordpress.com
2.3.2 Etic Perspective
The eetic perspective focuses the researcherÊs viewpoint over the local viewpoint.
This approach assumes that the members of a social group are not able to
objectively describe their culture because they are too involved in that culture.
For example, some societies believe that illness is caused by evil spirits and can
be cured by witch doctors. Scientifically (the etic perspective), the ethnographer
knows that diseases are caused by germs and can be cured by medical doctors
(please refer to Figure 2.11).
Here, the ethnographer decides for himself what is considered worthy of study.
He should try to be as objective as possible and be fair to the culture that he is
observing. However, it should be noted that the ethnographer is also human and
as such is also affected by bias and prejudices. Therefore, perfect objectivity is not
to be expected. It is hoped that intensive training in anthropology would
somewhat reduce bias in fieldwork.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Differentiate between the etic perspective and the emic
perspective.
2.3.3 Ethnocentric Bias
Anthropology teaches that no single culture is superior to other cultures. Claims
that Western culture is better than non-Western cultures are not true from the
anthropological point of view. Such claims demonstrate ethnocentric bias,
meaning that oneÊs assessment of other cultures is influenced by oneÊs own
cultural standards.
Each culture must be viewed according to the unique lens of that own society,
and not according to the distorted lens of other societies. Cultural relativism
appreciates the fact that other cultures have their own strengths and operate
according to its own internal logic.
2.4 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION IN RESEARCH
As more data is collected about foreign cultures, we gain more knowledge which
allows us to explain cultural differences and similarities. A theory is a statement
that describes relationships between phenomena that are studied.
Anthropological theories help us to interpret data, explain cultural phenomena,
and make predictions about social behaviour.
Even if a theory cannot be proven, it may still be useful for research purposes
because it can be used to generate hypotheses. A hypothesis is an unproven
statement that may be used as a springboard for further research. Hypotheses
must be tested empirically, and if proven, it will strengthen a theory. If not, the
theory may be revised or rejected altogether.
There are many anthropological theories, but for the purpose of this topic, we
will only focus on three well-known theories:
(i) Evolutionary theory
(ii) Diffusion theory
(iii) Functionalism
2.4.1 Evolutionary Theory
Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan (please refer to Figure 2.12) contributed tremendously to the
development of evolutionary theory. This theory owes a lot to Charles DarwinÊs concept of biological
evolution. Evolutionary theory basically states that all societies go through the same developmental stages
in the same sequence. Cultural evolution is assumed to progress in a linear fashion (one-directional) and
will always bring development and cultural improvement. Lewis Henry Morgan used concepts
such as savagery, barbarism, and civilisation to categorise the level of technological development for
a particular society. This theory is accused of being ethnocentric because it assumes that Western
civilisation is the only standard by which human development and achievement is measured.
2.4.2 Diffusion Theory
Figure 2.12: Lewis Henry Morgan
Source: www.union.edu
Diffusion theory is pioneered by anthropologists such as Grafton Elliot Smith (please refer to Figure 2.13), W. J.
Perry, Fritz Graebner, and Wilhelm Schmidt. This theory assumes that societies in this world tend to borrow ideas
and technology from other societies through the process of cultural diffusion. This theory is now widely
discredited because it is too dependent on the concept of cultural diffusion to explain the process of cultural
change. Smith and Perry, for instance, suggested that Elliot Smith everything that was ever invented in this world could be
traced back to ancient Egyptian civilisation. Is this a reasonable assumption to make? Think about it.
Figure 2.13: Grafton
Source: www.cdb.ucl.ac.uk
2.4.3 Functionalism
Anthropologists like Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (please refer to Figure 2.14)
were the founding fathers of functionalism. This theory attempts to prove that cultural elements in a
society positively contribute to individual and social well-being. Functionalists imagine society to be just
like a biological organism which consists of interrelated parts that depend on each other. Because
of the integrated nature of society, any changes that occur to one part will necessarily trigger changes in
other parts of society. Functionalism has a strong Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
foundation in fieldwork thanks to solid research done by ethnographers like Bronislaw Malinowski.
Figure 2.14: Alfred
Source: picasaweb.google.com
ACTIVITY 2.3
Based on the theories that we have discussed, try to formulate some
hypotheses about cultural phenomena. In your opinion, does your
hypothesis prove or disprove existing theories?
. There is a difference between anthropological methodology and sociological
methodology. Anthropological research normally revolves around small-
scale non-European societies, and is descriptive and holistic in nature.
Sociological research, on the other hand, revolves around large-scale modern
societies, and is quantitative and specific in nature.
. Ethnography involves fieldwork in a certain society. Ethnographic techniques
include participant observation, genealogy, key informant, life history, and
longitudinal studies.
. Data in anthropological research can be interpreted according to the emic
perspective (focused on local viewpoint) or the etic perspective (focused on
the researcherÊs viewpoint). Anthropologists should try their best to prevent
ethnocentric bias from influencing their research.
. Theory is an important springboard for furthering research. Some well-known anthropological theories include evolu tionary theory, diffusion
theory, and functionalism.
Anthropological Method Genealogical Method Becoming Native Hypothesis
Cultural Relativism Key Informant Diffusion Theory Life History
Emic Perspective Longitudinal Studies Ethnocentric Bias Participant Observation
Ethnography Rapport Etic Perspective Sociological Method Evolutionary Theory Theory
Functionalism
Eriksen, T. H. (1995). Small places, large issues: An introduction to social and cultural anthropology. London: Pluto Press.
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Firth, R. W. (1990) [1966]. Nelayan Melayu: Ekonomi tani mereka. Translators
Yaacob Harun dan Noor Hasnah Moin. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
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