Topic 5 - Systems of Production
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between man, ecology and technology;
2. Describe the division of labour in society;
3. Compare systems of production in the world; and
4. Discuss environmental issues related to systems of production.
INTRODUCTION
John comes out of the supermarket. He is drinking a can of Coke while carrying a
plastic bag full of household items and foodstuff such as toothpaste, toothbrush,
soap, hair gel, shampoo, instant noodles, and others. The supermarket is where
John and so many other people go to get what they need. John cannot imagine
how society would continue to function without supermarkets. What if all the
supermarkets in the world suddenly decided to close shop all of a sudden?
Surely there will be general panic as many people would be wondering how they
would go about getting their goods.
As John is walking home, he passes by a paddy field, wide and green. He
observes a farmer ploughing the field with his cow (please refer to Figure 5.1). It
occurred to John: perhaps in the past, before the advent of modernity and
supermarkets, man could subsist by planting paddy and processing their own
food. Man depended more on nature for his sustenance. Modern man seems to
be alienated from nature and may even be responsible for the declining quality of
the environment. How did all this come about? These issues that are troubling
John (and perhaps yourself) will be discussed in greater detail in this topic.
Figure 5.1: Can man survive by depending solely on agriculture?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Have you gone to the supermarket with your family this week?
List the grocery items that you would normally purchase and
reasons for purchasing them. Next, figure out if there are
alternatives to those grocery items that could easily be gathered
from nature. Discuss with your friends.
5.1 MAN, ECOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
To survive, man must learn to deal with many cultural challenges. So far, this
module has tried to explain how man manages his social life through social
institutions like the family and religion. These institutions help man achieve his
objectives such as strengthening social solidarity or to propagate the species. But
of all these social needs, the most important on the scale of priorities would be to
acquire food from nature. Society will perish if it cannot provide a mechanism by
which to provide food systematically to its members.
There is a very intimate connection between man, ecology, and technology.
Ecology refers to the complex relations between an organism and its
surroundings. In the anthropological context, that organism is man who interacts
with society (his social surroundings) to acquire food and other necessities.
Technology refers to the means of accomplishing tasks using technical processes,
knowledge, and tools.
Figure 5.2: Primitive weapon Figure 5.3: Modern weapon
Source: www.celebrateexpress.com Source: upload.wikimedia.org
It is apparent that man depends on technology to interact with his social
surroundings for the purpose of accomplishing his daily tasks. What is less
apparent here is that technology is in fact reflective of the times. For example,
primitive man also had technology in the form of weapons used for hunting
game. These animals were brought back to their caves to be processed into food.
Similarly, modern man also uses technology to acquire food, only not in the form
of clubs and spears (please refer to Figure 5.2). One of the primary weapons of
modern man is the credit card (please refer to Figure 5.3) and it is carried by the
modern hunter into the modern jungle to hunt food. What is this modern jungle
that we speak of? Surely the supermarkets and hypermarkets!
As a comparison, for modern people like us, we purchase our foodstuff and
grocery from the supermarket, but for tribal societies and hunters and gatherers,
the jungle is the supermarket for them. The jungle is the ecological surrounding
in which they find and gather almost all their necessary items including food,
construction material, clothes, medicine, and so on.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
(a) Define the following:
Ecology
Technology
(b) Explain the relationship between man, ecology, and technology.
5.2 DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY
You have brought back meat to your home, whether through primitive or
modern means. Who will now process that meat to be served to your family? In
any society, whether primitive or modern, you will find that there is division of
labour. All societies must assign different roles to ensure that tasks are performed
responsibly. There are several levels of division of labour:
Specialisation by gender
Specialisation by age
Specialisation by role
5.2.1 Specialisation by Gender
In anthropology, there is a marked difference between tasks performed by men
and women. Usually, men will do work outside the home whereas women will
do work inside the home (please refer to Table 5.1). however, this is merely a
generalisation. There are always exceptions to the rule: there are men who prefer
to be househusbands (please refer to Figure 5.4) and there are also women who
prefer to build their careers (please refer to Figure 5.5) in areas monopolised by
men. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that on the whole specialisation by gender
is an observable phenomenon in many societies throughout the world.
Table 5.1: Division of labour by gender
Men's roles WomenÊs roles
Hunting Gathering
Building houses Childcare
Clearing land for farming Farming
Breeding livestock Cooking food
Leadership Housekeeping
Figure 5.4: Househusband Figure 5.5: Career woman
Source: picasaweb.google.com Source: www.montgomerycountymd.gov
60 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
There are three theories which attempt to explain specialisation by gender in
division of labour:
(i)
Men are physically stronger and have the physique to perform heavy tasks
such as hunting, fighting, and clearing land for farming.
(ii)
Women perform work inside the house because it is compatible with
childcare. MenÊs tasks are heavy and dangerous, and if performed by
women, it is feared that it will endanger children under her care.
(iii)
In terms of reproduction, men are more expendable than women. If women
are put in danger and as a result are killed in action, who will then bear
children? If men are killed while hunting or fighting, this will not disrupt
the reproductive function of society for as long as women have access to
men. So if you are a man, make sure that you are not killed because your
woman might end up with another man!
SELF-CHECK 5.2
(a)
Distinguish between menÊs roles and womenÊs roles.
(b)
Describe three theories that explain specialisation by gender
in division by labour.
5.2.2 Specialisation by Age
Labour is also divided according to age group. Children are usually exempted
from performing adult tasks because they lack physical strength and the
necessary knowledge. Instead, they are usually sent to school to seek knowledge
up to university level. With qualifications and certificates, parents will feel at
ease knowing that their children are better equipped to secure jobs. Because of
this, children are not expected to work and help their parents; instead, they are
reminded to study hard to secure a successful future.
Not all children are so lucky. In developing countries, child exploitation happens
in sweatshops. A ssweatshop (please refer to Figure 5.6) involves working
environments that can be considered difficult and dangerous where the workers
are exploited and do not have the opportunity to improve their condition. This
usually involves dangerous substances, extreme temperatures, and abusive
employers. Children in countries like Bangladesh and Nepal are forced to work for
hours and are paid a pittance in violation of minimum wage and overtime laws.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
61
Figure 5.6: Sweatshop children Figure 5.7: Senior citisen
Source: www.stir.org.au Source: www.lilseus.net
We will not stay young forever. One fine day, we will all experience old age.
Because old men are not as strong as they used to be, they are not expected to
perform heavy tasks anymore. For example, in primitive societies, old men no
longer hunt buy they still contribute by making weapons and tools. Usually, they
also shoulder religious roles and serve as the historical custodians of their
community based on their experience and wisdom. On the other hand, senior
citisens in the West usually lose their position and status when they retire
(please refer to Figure 5.7).
5.2.3 Specialisation by Role
When societyÊs food production system improves, more people are freed from
the task of gathering and processing food. Technological advancements allow
more people to play more specialised roles in society. Unlike primitive people,
we have to shoulder certain roles and so have no time to go out hunting food.
When we arrive home, we take for granted that food is on the table.
Back then, the situation was not like it is today. Do you still remember Emile
Durkheim? He made a study on the basis of social solidarity in primitive and
modern societies. According to Durkheim, primitive societies practice mechanical
solidarity where members of society play the same role, feel that they are socially
equal, and practice traditional and family values. Solidarity comes from the feeling
that people go through more or less the same experiences as others.
Figure 5.8: Teacher
Source: www.savein30.com
Figure 5.9: Mechanic
Source: cccgreeley.org
62 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
The emergence of modern societies introduces a shift from mechanical solidarity to
organic solidarity which is founded on role specialisation and interdependency.
This is because as society becomes more complex, it is not possible for any one of
its members to possess all the skills that are required to live his life. LetÊs say you
are a teacher in school (please refer to Figure 5.8). You know how to teach and
educate but perhaps you are not too skilled when it comes to fixing cars. So you
have to send your car to the workshop to be looked at by the mechanic (please
refer to Figure 5.9). Surely the mechanic knows more than you about cars, but
perhaps he has children who need to learn how to read, write, and do sums. The
mechanic will send his children to school to be taught by teachers like you.
Organic solidarity ensures that members of society fulfil each otherÊs needs based
on the skills that they have to offer. In life, no man is an island.
ACTIVITY 5.2
In your opinion, is the division of labour in society fair and
equitable? What will happen if there is no division of labour in
society? Discuss.
5.3 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
We have been made aware so far that division of labour exists in society. Now it
is time to study different systems of production based on how food is acquired
and processed. We can categorise systems of production into five types:
(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation
5.3.1 Hunting and Gathering
Hunting and ggathering involves activities such as hunting, foraging, and fishing.
Man has been gathering food from the earliest dawn of history, and today we
still have societies which still do like the Ju/Êhoansi and Inuit (please refer to
Figure 5.10). In general, hunting and gathering societies have always been
depicted as underdeveloped and less complex as compared to modern societies.
The following characteristics typify hunting and gathering societies:
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
63
Figure 5.10: The Inuit
Source: www.greenlandholiday.com
(a)
S
SSmall population: This happens because food gathering will never
guarantee an abundance of food. Food gatherers usually do not stock their
food for long periods of time. Even if they are able to do so, this will
eventually deplete their food source. What this proves is that without
plenty of food, human population will not expand.
(b)
N
NNomadic lifestyle: Food gatherers have to move around a lot in order to
trail their game. Their lives revolve around seasonal hunting cycles, which
explains why they do not stay put in any single area for extended periods
of time.
(c)
T
TThe family as the basic social unit: Hunting and gathering societies consist
of alliances between families that cooperate in hunting and gathering
activities. The family unit is egalitarian in nature and does not value social
differentiation as much as modern families.
(d)
F
FFound in isolated areas: Hunters and gatherers are used to hunting and
gathering in isolated areas such as deserts and tundras. With minimal
equipment and weapons, they are able to secure enough food despite the
harsh and unforgiving environment.
5.3.2 Horticulture
The N
Neolithic revolution marks the shift from hunting and gathering to food
production. This revolution has the following cultural impact on the
development of human civilisation:
(a)
P
PPopulation explosion: When society succeeds in producing food in great
quantities, more people can be sustained at any one time.
64 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
(b)
S
SSettled place of residence: Societies that produce its own food are more tied
to the land compared to hunting and gathering societies. They have to settle
in an area for a long time before they can reap the yield from the land.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: When food production systems improve, only a small
number of people are required to prepare food for the rest of society. Those
not involved in food production are free to play other roles in society and
this brings about what Emile Durkheim terms as organic solidarity.
Horticulture is one of the earliest food production systems in the world.
Horticulture is the cultivation of plants using simple tools (for example, the hoe)
and small plots of land. Only manpower is used in horticulture; animals,
machines, and irrigation systems are not required.
Shifting cultivation is a technique which is often used in horticulture where forests
are cleared and rased to the ground (please refer to Figure 5.11). The ashes become
fertiliser and plants are cultivated. This technique affects the fertility of the land
after a year or two, and if this happens, the farmers will move to another site. The
abandoned site will soon be overgrown with bushes. Shifting cultivation is
practiced in countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Sambia, and others.
Figure 5.11: Shifting cultivation
Source: www.mapscroll.fi
5.3.3 Pastoralism
Pastoralism refers to the rearing of animals (cattle, goats, sheep) as sources of
food (milk, meat). Herders have to ensure that their livestock have enough
grassland to grase on. As such, they lead a nomadic life because they are always
looking for new pastures for their livestock to grase on according to seasonal
changes. Pastoral societies do not have to rely entirely on their livestock; they
also get food by planting crops and trading with other groups. But basically, the
main source of food for pastoralists is their livestock.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
65
Because of this, animals like the cow have special significance and social meaning
in pastoral societies. Cattle are not just sources of food; they also serve as bride
wealth or sacrificial animals for religious ceremonies. In other words, the social
function of livestock is also closely linked with other social institutions such as
marriage, religion, and status. The cow is also a status symbol in some traditional
societies, very much like how a Lamborghini or Porsche represents prestige and
status in modern societies.
For example, the Maasai in Africa believe that God has entrusted them with the
responsibility of taking care of all the cattle that exists on the face of the earth
(please refer to Figure 5.12). Because of this myth, the Maasai are notorious for
stealing cattle from their neighbours! But the Maasai do not consider what they
are doing wrong, because God has given all the cattle in the world to them;
therefore, other people who own cattle, according to Maasai myth, have acquired
them illegally. The Maasai are merely „repossessing‰ what is rightfully theirs
anyway as decreed by God. Perhaps during the upcoming Festival of Sacrifice
(Eid al-Adha), before you slaughter the cattle, you should seek permission from
its „rightful owners‰ first, the Maasai!
Figure 5.12: The Maasai
Source: www.ilri.org
5.3.4 Agriculture
Agriculture differs from horticulture because it is highly dependent on animal
strength and technology (please refer to Figure 5.13). Unlike horticulture,
agriculture involves the use of technological implements such as the plough,
fertiliser, irrigation systems, and modern machines. Technological sophistication
ensures that agriculturalists reap more yield and crops than the horticulturalists.
However, this high level of productivity requires a major investment in terms of
workforce and capital. Agriculture is one of the factors that contribute to the
expansion of civilisation because it brings about the following changes:
66 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
Figure 5.13: Agriculture utilises animal power and technology
Source: www.cyberartsweb.org
(a)
E
EEstablishment of towns: Agriculture requires people to settle in a certain
area for an extended period of time. This leads to the establishment of
towns which serve as centres of civilisation.
(b)
E
EEfficient system of food production: With the advent of technology, more
food can be produced to sustain an ever increasing population. A large
population is the prerequisite for the establishment of a strong civilisation.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: As we have discussed before, the existence of a social
class which specialises in producing food frees other people to take on
other roles. Social stratification is one of the characteristics of human
civilisation.
The social class that is responsible for producing food for society is called the
peasantry. They constitute the majority in any society and are tied to the state
through political, religious, and economic institutions. They offer surplus yield
and crops to the state, while the state provides them with products that they
need. Here, we have to take note that although they are the main providers of
food for society, yet their social status is low, they have no political power, and
they own very little wealth compared to the upper classes. Is this situation
socially fair? Reflect on this.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
67
5.3.5 Industrialisation
As we have discussed previously, the Neolithic revolution has dramatically
changed our way of life. The IIndustrial Revolution ushered in a new era in the
history of food production. Industrialisation is heavily dependent on modern
technology (such as windmills, waterwheels, tractors, chemical fertilisers) as
compared to human or animal strength. The widespread use of technology has
multiplied yield and crops many times over. Instead of subsistence farming,
modern farmers can now sell surplus yield and crops for profit. However,
modern technology consumes high amounts of capital.
The best example to describe the influence of modern technology in farming is
the use of g
gglobal positioning system (GPS). This technology allows the modern
farmer to determine position, time, and direction accurately in real time. This
means that he is able to precisely monitor measurements concerning water, land,
and crops. This modern concept of farming is called pprecision farming because it
enables the farmer to do the right thing, at the right time, at the right place
(please refer to Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14: Precision agriculture
Source: www.ranchview.ca
SELF-CHECK 5.3
State the characteristics of the following systems of production:
Hunting and gathering
Horticulture
Pastoralism
Agriculture
Industrialisation
68 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The systems of food production that we have discussed so far have contributed
much to societyÊs survival. However, we must bear in mind that these systems
may have negative consequences for the environment. In securing oneÊs
livelihood on the face of this earth, are we acting responsibly in managing our
ecology, or are we blatantly contributing to the destruction of nature?
Commercial farming involves clearing a large area of forest land which will
destroy the local ecology. Animal husbandry (for example, poultry farm and pig
farm) causes pollution in the form of animal excrement. Uncontrolled use of
pesticides has contaminated many water sources, endangering the lives and
health of human consumers.
Shifting cultivation has been criticised because it threatens biodiversity (variety of
flora and fauna) in the jungle. Under normal conditions, this technique destroys
forest areas and acres of pasture. But ever since the El Nino phenomenon struck
the world, fires started for the purpose of shifting cultivation have begun to spread
beyond control. Major cities in Southeast Asia have experienced major hazy
conditions due to forest fires in Sarawak and Kalimantan (please refer to Figure
5.15). The resulting drought caused by El Nino causes many negative effects on the
ecology: many species of trees are becoming extinct, wild animals are displaced
from their habitat, and the increasing rate of soil erosion.
Figure 5.15: Haze in Kuala Lumpur
Source: picasaweb.google.com
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
69
Actually, there are many more environmental issues that arise due to manÊs
irresponsibility:
.
Water pollution due to pesticides.
.
Fishes in the sea are decreasing due to large scale commercial fishing.
.
Genetically modified crops may endanger human health.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Surf the net and find information about environmental issues that
are caused by uncontrolled use of technology. Discuss in class and
try to think of ways to reduce the negative impact technology has
on the environment.
.
Man uses technology (technical processes, knowledge, and tools) in the
context of social ecology to acquire and produce food that is needed to
survive.
.
Division of labour ensures that each and every member of society knows and
performs his assigned role. There are several levels of division of labour:
(i) Specialisation by gender
(ii) Specialisation by age
(iii) Specialisation by role
.
Throughout history, humans have organised various systems of production
based on the technology that was available at the time. We can categorise
these systems of production into five types:
(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation
70 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
.
Although these systems of production help us to acquire and produce the
food that we need, but when abused, it brings about negative effects to the
social ecology.
Agriculture Neolithic Revolution
Division of Labour Organic Solidarity
Ecology Pastoralism
Global Positioning System (GPS) Peasantry
Horticulture Precision Farming
Hunting and Gathering Shifting Cultivation
Industrial Revolution Sweatshop
Industrialisation Technology
Mechanical Solidarity
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between man, ecology and technology;
2. Describe the division of labour in society;
3. Compare systems of production in the world; and
4. Discuss environmental issues related to systems of production.
INTRODUCTION
John comes out of the supermarket. He is drinking a can of Coke while carrying a
plastic bag full of household items and foodstuff such as toothpaste, toothbrush,
soap, hair gel, shampoo, instant noodles, and others. The supermarket is where
John and so many other people go to get what they need. John cannot imagine
how society would continue to function without supermarkets. What if all the
supermarkets in the world suddenly decided to close shop all of a sudden?
Surely there will be general panic as many people would be wondering how they
would go about getting their goods.
As John is walking home, he passes by a paddy field, wide and green. He
observes a farmer ploughing the field with his cow (please refer to Figure 5.1). It
occurred to John: perhaps in the past, before the advent of modernity and
supermarkets, man could subsist by planting paddy and processing their own
food. Man depended more on nature for his sustenance. Modern man seems to
be alienated from nature and may even be responsible for the declining quality of
the environment. How did all this come about? These issues that are troubling
John (and perhaps yourself) will be discussed in greater detail in this topic.
Figure 5.1: Can man survive by depending solely on agriculture?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Have you gone to the supermarket with your family this week?
List the grocery items that you would normally purchase and
reasons for purchasing them. Next, figure out if there are
alternatives to those grocery items that could easily be gathered
from nature. Discuss with your friends.
5.1 MAN, ECOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
To survive, man must learn to deal with many cultural challenges. So far, this
module has tried to explain how man manages his social life through social
institutions like the family and religion. These institutions help man achieve his
objectives such as strengthening social solidarity or to propagate the species. But
of all these social needs, the most important on the scale of priorities would be to
acquire food from nature. Society will perish if it cannot provide a mechanism by
which to provide food systematically to its members.
There is a very intimate connection between man, ecology, and technology.
Ecology refers to the complex relations between an organism and its
surroundings. In the anthropological context, that organism is man who interacts
with society (his social surroundings) to acquire food and other necessities.
Technology refers to the means of accomplishing tasks using technical processes,
knowledge, and tools.
Figure 5.2: Primitive weapon Figure 5.3: Modern weapon
Source: www.celebrateexpress.com Source: upload.wikimedia.org
It is apparent that man depends on technology to interact with his social
surroundings for the purpose of accomplishing his daily tasks. What is less
apparent here is that technology is in fact reflective of the times. For example,
primitive man also had technology in the form of weapons used for hunting
game. These animals were brought back to their caves to be processed into food.
Similarly, modern man also uses technology to acquire food, only not in the form
of clubs and spears (please refer to Figure 5.2). One of the primary weapons of
modern man is the credit card (please refer to Figure 5.3) and it is carried by the
modern hunter into the modern jungle to hunt food. What is this modern jungle
that we speak of? Surely the supermarkets and hypermarkets!
As a comparison, for modern people like us, we purchase our foodstuff and
grocery from the supermarket, but for tribal societies and hunters and gatherers,
the jungle is the supermarket for them. The jungle is the ecological surrounding
in which they find and gather almost all their necessary items including food,
construction material, clothes, medicine, and so on.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
(a) Define the following:
Ecology
Technology
(b) Explain the relationship between man, ecology, and technology.
5.2 DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY
You have brought back meat to your home, whether through primitive or
modern means. Who will now process that meat to be served to your family? In
any society, whether primitive or modern, you will find that there is division of
labour. All societies must assign different roles to ensure that tasks are performed
responsibly. There are several levels of division of labour:
Specialisation by gender
Specialisation by age
Specialisation by role
5.2.1 Specialisation by Gender
In anthropology, there is a marked difference between tasks performed by men
and women. Usually, men will do work outside the home whereas women will
do work inside the home (please refer to Table 5.1). however, this is merely a
generalisation. There are always exceptions to the rule: there are men who prefer
to be househusbands (please refer to Figure 5.4) and there are also women who
prefer to build their careers (please refer to Figure 5.5) in areas monopolised by
men. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that on the whole specialisation by gender
is an observable phenomenon in many societies throughout the world.
Table 5.1: Division of labour by gender
Men's roles WomenÊs roles
Hunting Gathering
Building houses Childcare
Clearing land for farming Farming
Breeding livestock Cooking food
Leadership Housekeeping
Figure 5.4: Househusband Figure 5.5: Career woman
Source: picasaweb.google.com Source: www.montgomerycountymd.gov
60 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
There are three theories which attempt to explain specialisation by gender in
division of labour:
(i)
Men are physically stronger and have the physique to perform heavy tasks
such as hunting, fighting, and clearing land for farming.
(ii)
Women perform work inside the house because it is compatible with
childcare. MenÊs tasks are heavy and dangerous, and if performed by
women, it is feared that it will endanger children under her care.
(iii)
In terms of reproduction, men are more expendable than women. If women
are put in danger and as a result are killed in action, who will then bear
children? If men are killed while hunting or fighting, this will not disrupt
the reproductive function of society for as long as women have access to
men. So if you are a man, make sure that you are not killed because your
woman might end up with another man!
SELF-CHECK 5.2
(a)
Distinguish between menÊs roles and womenÊs roles.
(b)
Describe three theories that explain specialisation by gender
in division by labour.
5.2.2 Specialisation by Age
Labour is also divided according to age group. Children are usually exempted
from performing adult tasks because they lack physical strength and the
necessary knowledge. Instead, they are usually sent to school to seek knowledge
up to university level. With qualifications and certificates, parents will feel at
ease knowing that their children are better equipped to secure jobs. Because of
this, children are not expected to work and help their parents; instead, they are
reminded to study hard to secure a successful future.
Not all children are so lucky. In developing countries, child exploitation happens
in sweatshops. A ssweatshop (please refer to Figure 5.6) involves working
environments that can be considered difficult and dangerous where the workers
are exploited and do not have the opportunity to improve their condition. This
usually involves dangerous substances, extreme temperatures, and abusive
employers. Children in countries like Bangladesh and Nepal are forced to work for
hours and are paid a pittance in violation of minimum wage and overtime laws.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
61
Figure 5.6: Sweatshop children Figure 5.7: Senior citisen
Source: www.stir.org.au Source: www.lilseus.net
We will not stay young forever. One fine day, we will all experience old age.
Because old men are not as strong as they used to be, they are not expected to
perform heavy tasks anymore. For example, in primitive societies, old men no
longer hunt buy they still contribute by making weapons and tools. Usually, they
also shoulder religious roles and serve as the historical custodians of their
community based on their experience and wisdom. On the other hand, senior
citisens in the West usually lose their position and status when they retire
(please refer to Figure 5.7).
5.2.3 Specialisation by Role
When societyÊs food production system improves, more people are freed from
the task of gathering and processing food. Technological advancements allow
more people to play more specialised roles in society. Unlike primitive people,
we have to shoulder certain roles and so have no time to go out hunting food.
When we arrive home, we take for granted that food is on the table.
Back then, the situation was not like it is today. Do you still remember Emile
Durkheim? He made a study on the basis of social solidarity in primitive and
modern societies. According to Durkheim, primitive societies practice mechanical
solidarity where members of society play the same role, feel that they are socially
equal, and practice traditional and family values. Solidarity comes from the feeling
that people go through more or less the same experiences as others.
Figure 5.8: Teacher
Source: www.savein30.com
Figure 5.9: Mechanic
Source: cccgreeley.org
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TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
The emergence of modern societies introduces a shift from mechanical solidarity to
organic solidarity which is founded on role specialisation and interdependency.
This is because as society becomes more complex, it is not possible for any one of
its members to possess all the skills that are required to live his life. LetÊs say you
are a teacher in school (please refer to Figure 5.8). You know how to teach and
educate but perhaps you are not too skilled when it comes to fixing cars. So you
have to send your car to the workshop to be looked at by the mechanic (please
refer to Figure 5.9). Surely the mechanic knows more than you about cars, but
perhaps he has children who need to learn how to read, write, and do sums. The
mechanic will send his children to school to be taught by teachers like you.
Organic solidarity ensures that members of society fulfil each otherÊs needs based
on the skills that they have to offer. In life, no man is an island.
ACTIVITY 5.2
In your opinion, is the division of labour in society fair and
equitable? What will happen if there is no division of labour in
society? Discuss.
5.3 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
We have been made aware so far that division of labour exists in society. Now it
is time to study different systems of production based on how food is acquired
and processed. We can categorise systems of production into five types:
(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation
5.3.1 Hunting and Gathering
Hunting and ggathering involves activities such as hunting, foraging, and fishing.
Man has been gathering food from the earliest dawn of history, and today we
still have societies which still do like the Ju/Êhoansi and Inuit (please refer to
Figure 5.10). In general, hunting and gathering societies have always been
depicted as underdeveloped and less complex as compared to modern societies.
The following characteristics typify hunting and gathering societies:
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
63
Figure 5.10: The Inuit
Source: www.greenlandholiday.com
(a)
S
SSmall population: This happens because food gathering will never
guarantee an abundance of food. Food gatherers usually do not stock their
food for long periods of time. Even if they are able to do so, this will
eventually deplete their food source. What this proves is that without
plenty of food, human population will not expand.
(b)
N
NNomadic lifestyle: Food gatherers have to move around a lot in order to
trail their game. Their lives revolve around seasonal hunting cycles, which
explains why they do not stay put in any single area for extended periods
of time.
(c)
T
TThe family as the basic social unit: Hunting and gathering societies consist
of alliances between families that cooperate in hunting and gathering
activities. The family unit is egalitarian in nature and does not value social
differentiation as much as modern families.
(d)
F
FFound in isolated areas: Hunters and gatherers are used to hunting and
gathering in isolated areas such as deserts and tundras. With minimal
equipment and weapons, they are able to secure enough food despite the
harsh and unforgiving environment.
5.3.2 Horticulture
The N
Neolithic revolution marks the shift from hunting and gathering to food
production. This revolution has the following cultural impact on the
development of human civilisation:
(a)
P
PPopulation explosion: When society succeeds in producing food in great
quantities, more people can be sustained at any one time.
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TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
(b)
S
SSettled place of residence: Societies that produce its own food are more tied
to the land compared to hunting and gathering societies. They have to settle
in an area for a long time before they can reap the yield from the land.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: When food production systems improve, only a small
number of people are required to prepare food for the rest of society. Those
not involved in food production are free to play other roles in society and
this brings about what Emile Durkheim terms as organic solidarity.
Horticulture is one of the earliest food production systems in the world.
Horticulture is the cultivation of plants using simple tools (for example, the hoe)
and small plots of land. Only manpower is used in horticulture; animals,
machines, and irrigation systems are not required.
Shifting cultivation is a technique which is often used in horticulture where forests
are cleared and rased to the ground (please refer to Figure 5.11). The ashes become
fertiliser and plants are cultivated. This technique affects the fertility of the land
after a year or two, and if this happens, the farmers will move to another site. The
abandoned site will soon be overgrown with bushes. Shifting cultivation is
practiced in countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Sambia, and others.
Figure 5.11: Shifting cultivation
Source: www.mapscroll.fi
5.3.3 Pastoralism
Pastoralism refers to the rearing of animals (cattle, goats, sheep) as sources of
food (milk, meat). Herders have to ensure that their livestock have enough
grassland to grase on. As such, they lead a nomadic life because they are always
looking for new pastures for their livestock to grase on according to seasonal
changes. Pastoral societies do not have to rely entirely on their livestock; they
also get food by planting crops and trading with other groups. But basically, the
main source of food for pastoralists is their livestock.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
65
Because of this, animals like the cow have special significance and social meaning
in pastoral societies. Cattle are not just sources of food; they also serve as bride
wealth or sacrificial animals for religious ceremonies. In other words, the social
function of livestock is also closely linked with other social institutions such as
marriage, religion, and status. The cow is also a status symbol in some traditional
societies, very much like how a Lamborghini or Porsche represents prestige and
status in modern societies.
For example, the Maasai in Africa believe that God has entrusted them with the
responsibility of taking care of all the cattle that exists on the face of the earth
(please refer to Figure 5.12). Because of this myth, the Maasai are notorious for
stealing cattle from their neighbours! But the Maasai do not consider what they
are doing wrong, because God has given all the cattle in the world to them;
therefore, other people who own cattle, according to Maasai myth, have acquired
them illegally. The Maasai are merely „repossessing‰ what is rightfully theirs
anyway as decreed by God. Perhaps during the upcoming Festival of Sacrifice
(Eid al-Adha), before you slaughter the cattle, you should seek permission from
its „rightful owners‰ first, the Maasai!
Figure 5.12: The Maasai
Source: www.ilri.org
5.3.4 Agriculture
Agriculture differs from horticulture because it is highly dependent on animal
strength and technology (please refer to Figure 5.13). Unlike horticulture,
agriculture involves the use of technological implements such as the plough,
fertiliser, irrigation systems, and modern machines. Technological sophistication
ensures that agriculturalists reap more yield and crops than the horticulturalists.
However, this high level of productivity requires a major investment in terms of
workforce and capital. Agriculture is one of the factors that contribute to the
expansion of civilisation because it brings about the following changes:
66 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
Figure 5.13: Agriculture utilises animal power and technology
Source: www.cyberartsweb.org
(a)
E
EEstablishment of towns: Agriculture requires people to settle in a certain
area for an extended period of time. This leads to the establishment of
towns which serve as centres of civilisation.
(b)
E
EEfficient system of food production: With the advent of technology, more
food can be produced to sustain an ever increasing population. A large
population is the prerequisite for the establishment of a strong civilisation.
(c)
R
RRole specialisation: As we have discussed before, the existence of a social
class which specialises in producing food frees other people to take on
other roles. Social stratification is one of the characteristics of human
civilisation.
The social class that is responsible for producing food for society is called the
peasantry. They constitute the majority in any society and are tied to the state
through political, religious, and economic institutions. They offer surplus yield
and crops to the state, while the state provides them with products that they
need. Here, we have to take note that although they are the main providers of
food for society, yet their social status is low, they have no political power, and
they own very little wealth compared to the upper classes. Is this situation
socially fair? Reflect on this.
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
67
5.3.5 Industrialisation
As we have discussed previously, the Neolithic revolution has dramatically
changed our way of life. The IIndustrial Revolution ushered in a new era in the
history of food production. Industrialisation is heavily dependent on modern
technology (such as windmills, waterwheels, tractors, chemical fertilisers) as
compared to human or animal strength. The widespread use of technology has
multiplied yield and crops many times over. Instead of subsistence farming,
modern farmers can now sell surplus yield and crops for profit. However,
modern technology consumes high amounts of capital.
The best example to describe the influence of modern technology in farming is
the use of g
gglobal positioning system (GPS). This technology allows the modern
farmer to determine position, time, and direction accurately in real time. This
means that he is able to precisely monitor measurements concerning water, land,
and crops. This modern concept of farming is called pprecision farming because it
enables the farmer to do the right thing, at the right time, at the right place
(please refer to Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14: Precision agriculture
Source: www.ranchview.ca
SELF-CHECK 5.3
State the characteristics of the following systems of production:
Hunting and gathering
Horticulture
Pastoralism
Agriculture
Industrialisation
68 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The systems of food production that we have discussed so far have contributed
much to societyÊs survival. However, we must bear in mind that these systems
may have negative consequences for the environment. In securing oneÊs
livelihood on the face of this earth, are we acting responsibly in managing our
ecology, or are we blatantly contributing to the destruction of nature?
Commercial farming involves clearing a large area of forest land which will
destroy the local ecology. Animal husbandry (for example, poultry farm and pig
farm) causes pollution in the form of animal excrement. Uncontrolled use of
pesticides has contaminated many water sources, endangering the lives and
health of human consumers.
Shifting cultivation has been criticised because it threatens biodiversity (variety of
flora and fauna) in the jungle. Under normal conditions, this technique destroys
forest areas and acres of pasture. But ever since the El Nino phenomenon struck
the world, fires started for the purpose of shifting cultivation have begun to spread
beyond control. Major cities in Southeast Asia have experienced major hazy
conditions due to forest fires in Sarawak and Kalimantan (please refer to Figure
5.15). The resulting drought caused by El Nino causes many negative effects on the
ecology: many species of trees are becoming extinct, wild animals are displaced
from their habitat, and the increasing rate of soil erosion.
Figure 5.15: Haze in Kuala Lumpur
Source: picasaweb.google.com
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION •
69
Actually, there are many more environmental issues that arise due to manÊs
irresponsibility:
.
Water pollution due to pesticides.
.
Fishes in the sea are decreasing due to large scale commercial fishing.
.
Genetically modified crops may endanger human health.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Surf the net and find information about environmental issues that
are caused by uncontrolled use of technology. Discuss in class and
try to think of ways to reduce the negative impact technology has
on the environment.
.
Man uses technology (technical processes, knowledge, and tools) in the
context of social ecology to acquire and produce food that is needed to
survive.
.
Division of labour ensures that each and every member of society knows and
performs his assigned role. There are several levels of division of labour:
(i) Specialisation by gender
(ii) Specialisation by age
(iii) Specialisation by role
.
Throughout history, humans have organised various systems of production
based on the technology that was available at the time. We can categorise
these systems of production into five types:
(i) Hunting and gathering
(ii) Horticulture
(iii) Pastoralism
(iv) Agriculture
(v) Industrialisation
70 •
TOPIC 5 SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
.
Although these systems of production help us to acquire and produce the
food that we need, but when abused, it brings about negative effects to the
social ecology.
Agriculture Neolithic Revolution
Division of Labour Organic Solidarity
Ecology Pastoralism
Global Positioning System (GPS) Peasantry
Horticulture Precision Farming
Hunting and Gathering Shifting Cultivation
Industrial Revolution Sweatshop
Industrialisation Technology
Mechanical Solidarity
Ferraro, G. (2006). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Kottak, C. P. (2006). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity
(11th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Scupin, R. & DeCorse, C. R. (2004). Anthropology: A global perspective(5th ed.).
New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
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