? INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the issue of representation. Representation deals with how
certain groups assign meanings to certain items. Representation also involves
issues related to how a certain cultural group is being seen and perceived and how
their images are being portrayed in the media. Media representation can be seen
as the way media shows and portrays people in a particular group, or community
and also their experiences. This topic focuses on the issue of identity and the
different types of identity. Identity can be at a personal level and at the same time
maintaining a group or cultural identity. Lastly, this topic explores what it means
to be a citizen of a democratic country and how this relates to the issue of
representations of identity.
Topic 8 Representations
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of cultural representations;
2. Describe the meaning and types of identities; and
3. Discuss the relationship between citizenship and democracy.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
This subtopic explores the concept of media representation of certain cultures and
groups in societies. It explores whether the media representations are real or
whether they have played roles in building perceptions of these groups.
Representation has been defined by Hall (1997) as „using language to say something
meaningful about, or to represent the world meaningfully, to other people‰. Hall
(1997) further stated that representation is very important where „meaning is
produced and exchanged between members of a culture‰.
In terms of cultural representation, different items have different values to people of
different cultures. For example, pictures and paintings carry specific meanings and
representations to different cultural groups. In the teaching of feng shui in Chinese
culture, the pictures or paintings that they put in their homes represent more than
just decorations. For example, some individuals may consider water paintings to
represent life's journey, finances and professional career; these are placed
strategically in their homes for good fortune.
Hall (1997) further described two systems of representations. First is the system
where we have a mental definition of items, objects or people that we have seen.
This forms the basis of how we relate to the world. The second process involves
more of a conceptualisation process. The conceptualisation process may differ
based on our personal experience or even based on where we live. This creates a
process of building a perception where one may select, organise and interpret the
object based on a conceptualisation process. For example, one's culture plays a
strong role in defining certain concepts such as war and democracy.
8.1.1 Theories of Representation
There are three approaches to how meaning is represented through language.
Table 8.1 discusses these approaches in further detail.
Table 8.1: Approaches to Representation of Meaning
Type Description Example
Reflective
approach
The meaning of the object lies
in the object itself.
„A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose‰
a a famous line from Gertrude
SteinÊs poem, meaning often things
can be interpreted by what they
are.
Intentional
approach
The meaning of a certain object
lies in the intention of the
speaker.
In Malay culture, during the
engagement process, the speaker
may use contextual meaning of
words in expressing their intention.
For example, „we would like to
pluck a flower in your garden‰
means we would like to have our
son marry your daughter.
Constructionist
approach
Meanings of objects are all
constructed using a system of
representation, using signs and
symbols. It reduces the material
meaning to an object but focuses
on the constructed meaning. The
meaning is on the symbolic
function of the product.
The feng shui painting scenario
provided earlier.
MEDIA REPRESENTATION
Media representation focuses on the role of media in depicting and portraying
certain cultural groups, communities and culture. It may also play a role in
portraying certain political ideologies or even values within a society. In a way it
raises the question whether media reporting or representations are exactly the
reality of life or do they in a way create new realities?
Look at some items around your room. Are you able to recognise the
items? How are you able to recognise them? Try to break down your
thought process as to how you are able to identify the items. Share your
experience in the online forum.
ACTIVITY 8.1
8.2.1 Representation of Culture
Media plays a strong role in influencing and shaping the perceptions of
individuals. Media is a platform where people learn about others from different
cultures. For example, when watching television, one learns about another culture
from news programmes, dramas, documentaries, cartoons, and so forth.
Individuals also base their understanding on what they read in the newspapers or
on information obtained online. The media plays a stronger role especially when
one has no direct contact with other cultures.
Some argue that certain groups are misrepresented in online media. Said (1997) in
his book Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See
the Rest of the World, discussed how media has portrayed Muslims around the
world. He stated that there is a relationship between knowledge and power in which
those who control knowledge, will control power. Thus, media owners are powerful
in the cultural representation of selected groups in the media. Subsequent to
September 11, 2001 there have been many media reports, views and comments,
albeit negative descriptions, about Muslims and Islam across the world, associating
the religion and followers of the faith with fundamentalism and terrorism.
Other groups have also encountered representation issues in the media. For
example, the image of women has also been the target of media scrutiny. What
depicts beauty has been defined by many womenÊs magazines. Disney's
representation of the leading characters have also been an issue where there is a
stronger need for women to be more independent and empowered.
Other than that, the coverage of news when it comes to certain religion, ethnics,
global or local issues can also be seen as a form of media representations. As an
audience, what we actually see, hear and read in any means of media is a welltailored
and framed product of the producers, gatekeepers and media personnel.
These behind-the-scene processes are fitted for certain news for the audience to see
and believe. The end product of news that the audience received has also been
mediated by countless layers of saturations before it is presented, trimmed neatly
to the mass audience. What is chosen and presented as news has already been
narrowed down. Thus, the actual reality of the world is askew and what is released
is what is represented and mediated by the media. For example, the media
coverage on election, sexual assaults victims and perpetrators, and environmental
issues and many more.
IDENTITIES
Castell (1997) describes identities as „sources of meaning for the actors, and by
themselves, constructed through a process of individuation. /Identities can also be
originated from dominant institutions; they become identities only when and if
social actors internalise them, and construct their meanings around this
internalisation‰. Castell (2004) further describes identity as peopleÊs source of
meaning and experience where individuals are required to not only organise their
meanings and thoughts in life but also the role they play and how they may function.
Liu, Volcic and Gallois (2011) described identity as „each individualÊs particular
way of identifying himself or herself within specific cultural contexts‰. Identity
can be defined by religion, gender, class, race, ethnicity political orientation, social
group, occupation and geographic region. Figure 8.1 shows the two different
categories of identity.
Figure 8.1: Personal and social identity
Go online to a local newspaper website. Click on the international section.
Look through the news and see how certain individuals or groups are being
portrayed in that newspaper. Give your comments in the online forum.
ACTIVITY 8.2
As shown in Figure 8.1, there are personal identities and social identities. The
personal identity is related to attributes of an individual self, in a way that one
defines himself or herself. Social identity is how being part of a group requires an
individual to project a certain form of identity. It could be in the form of cultural
or ethnic identity, part of a religious or social class group or even being part of a
professional membership.
Jansson (2008) explained that the concept of identity deals with the relation
between self and society or self and the other. Identity can be understood as the
situation or condition of being oneself and not others. However, a person might
take in the identity of other people as their own in order to create an identity that
only they understand and that can also be accepted by society.
8.3.1 What is Identity?
Identity can also be defined as something that we can see as the unique
characteristics of a person or the qualities and beliefs of a person that can be used
to distinguish a person from another. However, some might feel that the identity
that they have might be rejected by society. Thus, some may try to occupy or adopt
a more acceptable identity for their society, family and colleague.
For example, Hayati Abdul Karim (2014) mentioned that the way youth construct
their identity depends a lot on their daily life, who their friends are, what their
social activities and daily life are like, as well as the relationship of the youth
between their parents and friends.
Thompson (as cited in Hayati Abdul Karim, 2014), says that the construction of
identity nowadays is very much influenced by the media. The self that we identify
as our identity is a result of experience and exposure from the foreign influence
which comes from the global television programmes that is easily accessible
through many means of media. The local audiencesÊ exposure to foreign content
through the media has created an amalgamation of identity. Furthermore,
Thompson (as cited in Hayati Abdul Karim, 2014), affirmed that the reason behind
cultivation of self-identity from resources of the media is due to the weakening of
local cultures. This has become the main factor why foreign media has great
influence on the construction of identity.
Lily El Ferawati Rofil, Md Azalanshah Md Syed and Azizah Hamzah (2015), point
out that the role of media technology especially in the construction of identity is
immense. Especially in the concept introduced by Anderson (2006) who defined
imagined community as „a concept that explained the idea that the construction
of identity is very much influenced by the media‰.
8.3.2 Conceptualisation of Cultural Identity
Cultural identity is defined by Ting-Toomey and Chung (2012) as the „emotional
significance that we attach to our sense of belonging or affiliation with the larger
culture‰. It is also important to understand the concept of cultural identity salience
which focuses on the strength of the relationship that one has with one's group.
A person has a low cultural identity salience if his or her attachment to his or her
cultural group is weak and vice versa. The level of attachment relates to how one
is willing to practise the culture, norms and values of the group.
People discover their specific cultural identity when they co-exist within a
multicultural society. It begins from our early stages of development with our
religious upbringing, the neighbourhood that we live in, the friends we have.
Family is usually the first group of people that you identify with culturally. For
example, these are the people with whom we first learn how to behave, know what
is socially acceptable and what sorts of non-verbal communication to use. We also
learn about our cultural identity through the mass media. At the same time, we
also learn about other cultural identities through the mass media, which may
construct and shape our perceptions of certain cultures.
8.3.3 Conceptualisation of Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity relates to the origins of the person. It goes back to the roots of the
personÊs ancestors. For example, ethnicity can be defined based on oneÊs race,
religion, nationality or even language (Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2012).
Ethnic identity relates a great deal on an individualÊs country of origin. However,
with migration and mobility of society, it is becoming more difficult to study
where one originates from. For example, African Americans and European
Americans may find difficulty tracing their original roots as they themselves are
products of a mixed group of communities.
However, ethnicity also incorporates a sense of belonging and identification with
the greater group. It is more subjective as it finds the links to and similarities with
the forefathers. We can infer about individuals based on their ethnic values. This can
be based on people's traits in terms of cultural dimension. For example, Asian
Americans tend to uphold a more collectivistic form of society in contrast with the
White American and African American who tend to believe more in individualism.
Individualism embraces idea about individuality and personal attainment as
opposed to collectivistic form where importance is put on the needs and goals of a
group. The relationship between each member of a group is emphasised as a vital
link in a person's identity which is connected to the collectivistic form. Furthermore, the individualism form emphasises on self-reliance, independence and also freedom
to act in the way one believes, making decision and choices individually as
individualistic identity is of utmost importance for them.
CITIZENSHIP AND DEMOCRACY
Citizenship is an interesting concept as it combines the traits of both individualistic
and collectivistic cultures. Democracy is a form of ideology that originated in
Greece over 2,000 years ago. Democracy means rule by the people. It places
emphasis on the importance of an individual as the core basis of the nation.
8.4.1 Citizenship
Citizenship can be individualistic as it focuses on the rights, liberties and freedom
of the individual; and it can also be collectivistic as citizenship is communal, where
you exercise your citizenship by becoming a member of a certain group, in this
context a particular nation state.
1. Name a few factors that are important in the construction of
identity?
2. How does the media play a role in the construction of identity?
3. Explain the concept of cultural identity.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What are your views on the impact of foreign media on our local
identity in Malaysia?
2. Discuss examples of media that have influence on your daily life.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Table 8.2 briefly describes the different concepts of citizenship.
Table 8.2: Different Concepts of Citizenship
Liberal Civic Republican
? Focus on economy.
? Participation in economy such as
being tax payers, free to engage in
business and obeying the law.
? Pursuit of self interest.
? May lead to extreme individualism
where there will be lacklustre public
spirit.
? Focus on politics.
? Participation in democracy and focus
is on the greater goal of the people.
? Activities relate to the public sphere.
? There will be the opportunist group
who may not perform duties as
citizens.
Source: Adapted from Faulks (2000)
8.4.2 Democracy
In democracy, representatives are selected based on a true and fair election, the
use of the Constitution as a sovereign understanding of a country and upholding
the concept of freedom and equality.
Magruder and McClenaghan (2005) described the American concept of democracy
in the following basic notions:
(a) Recognition of the fundamental worth and dignity of every person;
(b) Respect for the equality of all people;
(c) Faith in majority rule and an insistence upon minority rights;
(d) Acceptance of the necessity of compromise; and
(e) Insistence upon the widest possible degree of individual freedom.
The US is a country that follows the Federal Republic system, where the President,
the Congress and the Court work together in accordance to their Constitution.
Different countries have different systems that reflect their own countryÊs history
and views on how to approach democracy in their own way that would be suitable
for the their own country.
8.4.3 Democracy: Malaysian Context
In Malaysia, we practise Parliamentary Democracy with Constitutional Monarchy
where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is our head of the state and the Prime Minister
is the head of the government. Moreover, our Parliamentary Democracy system is
divided into three parts which is the Legislative, Judiciary and Executive system.
We also practise democracy based on the Federation systems where it is stated that
all the states in Malaysia are combined as one country. Malaysia is then headed by
the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who is chosen from among the nine state rulers in the
country. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is also the head of Islamic Religion, customs
and traditions of the majority race in Malaysia, namely, the Malays.
Malaysia's Parliament consists of the following three components to represent the
people of Malaysia:
(a) The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King);
(b) Dewan Negara (House of Senate); and
(c) Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives).
The Malaysian Parliament holds onto power for five years from the first day of its
meeting after Election Day. Every Malaysian citizen aged 21 years and above can
vote every five years.
1. Explain the difference between cultural and media representation.
2. What is the difference between cultural and ethnic identity?
3. What are some of the basic principles of democracy?
SELF-CHECK 8.2
? Cultural representations of certain communities in the media have been
criticised as they may not necessarily depict reality.
? Different items may have different values to people of different cultures.
? There are two systems of representation:
- When items, objects or people are defined mentally by what an individual
has seen; and
- Involves a conceptualisation process that is based on an individualÊs
personal experience.
? There are three theories of representation:
- Reflective approach;
- Intentional approach; and
- Constructionist approach.
? Media plays a strong role in influencing and shaping perceptions of
individuals. Some groups of people are misrepresented in online media.
? There are two categories of identity, namely, personal identity and social
identity.
? Personal identity is related to a psychological context.
? Social identity consists of group membership that an individual is in.
? Ethnic identity relates to the origin of a person. However, with migration and
ease of mobility, determining where an individual originates from can be
difficult.
? Identity is defined as the unique characteristics of a person or the qualities and
beliefs of an individual that can be used to distinguish one individual from
another.
? Foreign media has a great influence on an individualÊs identity.
? There are differences between the conceptualisation of cultural and ethnic
identities.
? Individualism embraces the idea of individuality and personal attainment,
whereas collectivism puts emphasis on the needs and goals of a group.
? Citizenship is a concept which can be both individualistic and collectivistic.
? Different concepts of citizenship include liberal and civic republican.
? Citizens play a strong role in the success of a democracy.
? Malaysia practises a Parliamentary Democracy with a Constitutional
Monarchy where the Yang-di-Pertuan Agong is the Paramount Ruler or the
head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government.
Citizenship
Civic republican
Constructionist approach
Cultural identity
Cultural representation
Ethnic identity
Intentional approach
Liberal
Media representation
Personal identity
Reflective approach
Representation
Social identity
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