? INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about the concepts of mass culture, popular culture,
subculture, counterculture and folk culture and be able to recognise the differences
between each of these concepts.
We live in a modern society where technology plays a vital role in our daily lives.
The nature of the media is capable of delivering popular culture to our doorsteps.
Although media helps in cultivating the knowledge of culture, we also need to
understand the history of culture and how various cultures were developed in our
society.
? Cultures
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of mass culture;
2. Differentiate between mass culture and popular culture;
3. Discuss the concept of subculture and counterculture; and
4. Explain the concept of folk culture.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
It is undeniable in today's world that we are evolving around a mass
communication system that makes it possible for mass culture to reach the
overwhelming majority of society. Mass culture is defined as a set of cultural
values and ideas that arise from common exposure of a population to the same
cultural activities, communication media, music, art, and so forth. The emergence
of modern technologies such as electronic media and the Internet plays a
significant role in supporting the mass cultural advancement.
The development of mass culture has been made possible because of the
urbanisation process, the industrial revolution and the rapid development of mass
communication. Mass culture is disseminated to individuals with the help of mass
media, and not merely dependent upon day to day and face-to-face interactions
with each other. In other words, mass culture reflects a culture of mass produced
for mass consumption. Some examples of mass cultures are as follows:
(a) The usage of computer in the workplace;
(b) Sending electronic mail (e-mail) instead of the traditional snail mail; and
(c) Social network websites as a tool of information dissemination.
POPULAR CULTURE
The term popular culture is often mistaken to be the synonym of mass culture.
Although both terms have a lot in common, they are not interchangeable.
these terms (...) have a lot in common, but there are also many differences. Their
meanings partially overlap, and are practically different. Their common
denominator is a large number of recipients.
Marian Golka, 2008
5.1
5.2
What type of mass culture do you encounter in your environment?
Discuss with your coursemates.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Popular culture, or sometimes called pop culture, is the vernacular culture that
prevails in a modern society. The content of pop culture is determined in large part
by industries that distribute cultural material. It is also spread via direct contact,
and not only via technical means. Additionally, pop culture features feedback.
Mass culture is distinguished by its links with unified content which are designed
to reach as many recipients as possible while pop culture is more diversified and
often pertains to niche content without much chance of reaching a broad audience.
Nonetheless, pop culture is heavily influenced by the mass media and the ideas
permeate the daily lives of society. The following are a few categories of the most
common pop culture:
(a) Entertainment (movies, music, television, etc.);
(b) Sports;
(c) News;
(d) Politics;
(e) Fashion; and
(f) Technology.
5.2.1 Industry Reproductions
Most of the time, popular culture is linked to certain mass products from the industry. Undoubtedly, popular culture is constantly changing and is specific to
place and time. Popular culture often acts like social behaviour where a small group of people may have strong interests in an area of which the mainstream
popular culture is partially aware. It is undeniable that profit-oriented companies take this opportunity to produce and sell pop culture goods and services to
maximise their own profits. Figure 5.1 illustrates an example of such profits in selling pop culture goods and services.
Figure 5.1: Launching of the World's biggest angry birds
playground at Low Yat Plaza, Kuala Lumpur
Source: http://www.liveatpc.com/malaysians-break-guinness-world-record/
1. Discuss the effects of popular culture on members of your society.
2. Explain the importance of popular culture in your daily life.
3. How does popular culture affect individuals?
4. Name a few types of popular cultures that you know of.
Share your findings with your coursemates.
ACTIVITY 5.2
SUBCULTURE
Most of the time, subcultures are derived from a group of people within a culture who differentiate themselves from the larger culture to which they belong and
own a unique identification. This particular group of people possesses different ideologies, usually in fashion and music preferences. Some of the subcultures
flourish merely because of peer pressure and the need among youth to belong.
According to Hebdige (2002), in his book Subculture: The Meaning of Style, subculture is a subversion of normalcy. It can be perceived as negative because of
its criticism of the dominant societal standards. In addition, subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and
allow them the opportunity to develop a sense of identity. Figure 5.2 shows a short cartoon strip on subcultures.
Figure 5.2: Short cartoon strip on subcultures
5.3.1 List of Subcultures
Subcultures develop merely because people want to be different, whether in a certain form of music, fashion, visual arts, dance, literature, films, and so forth.
Some of the subcultures practised in Malaysia are as follows:
(a) Punk Head
Punk started in England in the early 1970s and is believed to have started in Malaysia around the same time. The punk cultures are mostly about the inyour-face
attitude, rebellion, anti-society fashion statement and post-hippie idealism. The images usually associated with punk are strange Mohawk hairstyle, black cargo pants, shirts with slogans or logos of bands, patches
and khaki bag packs. For punk, age is not a barrier as the member can be someone as young as a teenager or as old as a 40 year old and above. Many
of them commit to the punk attitude even after they finish school and it seems to be an outlet for the young to let out their angst and rebellion streak.
Punk music is a type of music genre that is very famous in the UK and the US as well as in Malaysia, where bands such as Sex Pistols, The Clash, The
Police are widely accepted. Famous well-known punk individuals in Malaysia like Joe Kidd from the legendary punk rock band, Carburetor Dung
is well-known in the local punk and the underground music scene. There are more males than females involved in punk culture and this is mostly due to
the tough, wild and aggressive belief, style and way of doing things.
(b) Skinhead
Skinhead culture began to develop in the 1960s and its roots can be traced back to the working class youths in Britain. Its influence can be seen in
fashion and music. The image synonymous with skinheads is mostly shaven head and working class clothing such as Dr MartenÊs boots, suspenders,
ankle length jeans and aggressive shirt design. Music is a vital part of skinhead culture; the identity of Skinhead is innately linked to reggae music
due to the black immigrants and culture. Skinhead is a popular target for recruitment by the radical rights movement because of their violence
tendency and patriotic nationalist views. In Malaysia, their influence can be felt on the music scene with skinhead bands like Street Rebel, Oi! and ACAB.
While these bands mostly adopt the original idea of skinhead, they reject the racist influence that began in the late 1970s and 80s of right wing attitudes in
Britain. Skinheads in Malaysia are mostly Malay Muslims and they believe that skinhead is only a way of life.
(c) Hip Hop
Hip hop started in the US as a form of expression by discriminated African American youth. The hip hop culture usually comes from low-economy
areas such as the Bronx in New York, US. The hip hop culture uses music as the main mechanism to voice their opinion on the social, political and
economic reality of their lives. It reflects the downtrodden reality of the African American group. There are four main elements in the hip hop
cultures which are rapping, D Jing, break dancing and graffiti painting. The member of the hip hop culture can be acknowledged as those who wear
baggy clothes such as shirts and pants; they also wear brand logo shirt, snapback caps like hip hop celebrities Jay-Z, Kanye West, Snoop Dogg and
Drake. In Malaysia, the influence of hip hop can be traced back to the 1980s with break dancing. It is widely known that the film Azura starring Jamal
Abdillah and Fauziah Ahmad Daud show a break dancing scene. In terms of music, hip hop started around 1989 with a group called Krash Kozz. After
that, a number of hip hop influenced local groups started to emerge such as 4U2C, KRU, NICO and Poetic Ammo. However, it was a group called Too
Phat that really had a breakthrough in the local scene that made Malaysian society accept hip hop culture especially among youth.
(d) Heavy Metal
Heavy metal culture developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s in both the US and the UK. They are also sometimes known as metalheads, headbangers,
thrasher and also Hessian. They are known to wear items such as denim or leather jackets that are decorated with patches or logo of metal group names.
Characteristics of this subculture are mostly male dominated with masculine charisma and usually from the adolescent age group. The ideology of this
culture is usually pertaining to the pervasive alienation which they carry within them in the price and defiance of courage to expose the lies and the
cruelty of the world from their eyes. Their embrace of the ideology of alienation is of particular interest because of what it insinuates about the
experience of growing up as an adolescent in modern times. Famous bands such as Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath and The Who perform song with harsh,
dark sound with themes involving alienation and anger. There is also music with a brighter and lighter sound with themes involving angry love, lost love
and partying. The recurring themes within all music are violence, angst, anger and also sadness. The music usually starts with head banging, rocking
their body or head in a back and forth motion according to the rhythm of the music. This is to show that they are enjoying the music and are moved by it.
(e) Gothic
Gothic is a subculture that comes from Germany and England since the medieval era. However, in modern times, countries such as Japan adopt the
culture and change it to become more updated and colourful. Individuals in the Gothic subculture are known to be anti-fashion and also tend to do things
in a reverse manner. In Gothic culture, they believe that the scarier you look, the more Gothic you are. For instance, people outside the Gothic culture will
normally dress in colourful clothing; however, Gothic individuals will usually use dull colours, especially black. It is normal for them to use black
clothing that is extreme in nature like bondage items coupled with unusual hair styles and body piercing. The same can also be said about attracting
attention. Most people would like to look pretty to attract attention, but Gothic will do scary make up for the same reason. Usually, individuals
would want to be left alone, but at the same time, also want to be seen by the society. Gothic culture usually attracts people going through a tough time in
school with feelings of alienation, thus wanting to express themselves to show their feeling of pain, sorrow and dejection. Gothics tend to show
themselves as being depressed with a sullen and withdrawn expression in public; however their attitude changes to a carefree and happier mood when
amongst each other.
(f) Skater
Also known as 'Sk8r' and 'Sk8er'. The influence of skateboarding in today's modern culture is immense as can be seen in their influence on fashion, music
and even mannerism such as the way someone talks. There are no specific rules and mentality. This subculture champions independence and free
thinking in addition to attracting many creative people to skate. As there are no specific rules and teams, they are free to do their own thing according to
their own wants. Skaters usually wear certain styles of clothes such as flat sole tennis shoes from brands such as Converse, Supra or Vans, casual
graphic shirt, snapback cap and tight pants. Although their style may vary, they also try to wear things that are suitable and yearn to be accepted among
other skaters. Famous brands such as Billabong and Quick Silver are prominent examples of this subculture. The attitudes of a skater would
usually reflect the era they skate. The most popular cities with skaters are Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver and Barcelona. As it gains acceptance
from society, it can be seen in many forms of media such as in Disney movies, video games and music videos. Popular video game that features the
legendary skateboarder Tony Hawk is widely played around the world. In Malaysia, skateboarding is also famous with BMX and Extreme Games.
Furthermore, Malaysia has hosted many events such as the famous Asian XGames where skateboarders from across Asia compete with each other.
(g) Cosplay
Cosplay is believed to have begun in the 1930s in North America with the introduction of sci-fi conventions. It was firstly known as costuming. However, cosplay is different from dressing-up for Halloween. The most
obvious difference when an individual is cosplaying is the complete immersion of the individual as a character. It is not just wearing a costume,
but rather to completely embody the traits of a character such as in the way they walk and talk with gestures and attitude that is unique to their favourite
characters. In Japan, cosplayers would re-enact their favourite scene from a manga (Japanese comic books) which adds further excitement to cosplay
conventions. It is believed that the term cosplay was invented by combining the word „costume‰ and „play‰ by a Japanese reporter, Nobuyuki Takahasi
after he attended the Worldcon in Los Angeles. In Japan, districts such as Harajuku and Shibuya are famous meeting places for cosplay enthusiasts. In
Malaysia, there are the PopCon and AniManGaki which are annual events which fuel the culture. Their origin can be traced back to Sun-U Anime Club
by Sunway University College. This culture is accepted around the world because many people share the love of their favourite manga by eagerly
dressing up as their favourite character. Many of them invested a huge amount of money, time and labour in creating the perfect cosplay.
(h) Gamer
The culture of gaming mostly starts from self-taught gamers who usually play games in their own homes with a game console. They are usually seen
as couch potatoes who like to waste time and be unproductive. However, with the introduction of online gaming, there are shifts in the gaming
industry. It is now one of the biggest industries in the world and evolving very rapidly. It began to acquire more prominence in the last 10 years, as
gamers in online communities started to share and create their own games. The birth of thousands of online forums for famous games such as DOTA
(Defense of the Ancients) and LOL (League of Legends) created gamers that are known worldwide who want to share their victorious wins. These e-sport
players make millions by playing against each other in an e-sport competition. In Malaysia, famous e-sport gamers such as ChuaN, Mushi and
Ohaiyo have made a career out of playing games as they usually earn a hefty income. There are also plenty of courses that teach almost all the aspects of
games such as game development courses. These days, many institutions such as Kolej Damansara Utama, or commonly known as KDU University
College, Multimedia University (MMU) and Lim Kok Wing University offer many varieties of courses pertaining to gaming.
1. Explain what you understand by subculture.
2. What are the differences between popular culture and subculture?
3. What are the different characteristics of skin heads and punks?
SELF-CHECK 5.1
COUNTERCULTURE
It (the counterculture) was an attempt to rebel against the values our parents had pushed on us. We were trying to get back to touching and relating and
living. Lisa Law, 1985
Law was an American photographer and filmmaker best known for her photographs of the counterculture era. If we were to trace its history, the concept
of counterculture is generally understood to be a spontaneous rebellion against the stiff conservatism of the post-World War II era. It is also associated with
unconventional appearance, music, drugs, communitarian experiments and sexual liberation. These are the hallmarks of the 1960s counterculture whose
members were white, middle-class, young Americans. Counterculture refers to a way of living among any group of people whose beliefs,
values, styles and attitudes differ from the prevailing culture. It began with the hippie movement in the late 1960s and 1970s. It typically involves criticism or
rejection of the current powerful institution with an accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. The alternative subcultures that we are experiencing in
today's society revert back to the counterculture. Figure 5.3 shows some examples of popular counterculture movements in the 1960s and 1970s.
Figure 5.3: A celebration of the counterculture movement in California
Source: http://americanhistory.si.edu
FOLK CULTURE
Folk culture, occasionally known as local culture refers to the way of life based on the idea of society sharing experiences and having mutual obligations on a local environment. It emphasises primarily on traditions practised by small, homogeneous, rural groups that live as a community in certain geographical locations. Most of the time, folk culture is handed down to the next generation in order to preserve the cultural tradition. 5.5.1 Preserved Elements of Folk Culture
There are several elements and examples of folk culture that we can witness today in Malaysia. The following are some example of these preserved elements.
(a) Architecture
The Design of Minangkabau Houses Bahauddin, Hardono, Abdullah and Maliki (2012) define Minangkabau
houses as houses that are different from other ethnic group's traditional houses. They are easily recognised by their unique features such as the concave roof design that is similar to buffalo horns (see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: A traditional Minangkabau house
Source: https://sg.news.yahoo.com/5-biggest-misconceptions-indonesia-155628108.html
(b) Music
Most Notable as the Chinese Pipa and Flute Pipa is a four-stringed flute with 30 frets and has a pear-shape body. Its
history dates back at least 2,000 years age. The few types of pipa include Liuqin, Sanxian and Ruan.
The Chinese flute usually combines western polyphony with Chinese melodies and scales. Its music mostly has influence from Hong Kong, Taiwan
and China. Examples of the Chinese flute include Dizi and Xiao. Most are made from bamboo.
(c) Dance
Joget and Zapin
Both the Joget and Zapin are widely known as forms of Malay dance that usually portray the culture of the Malays.
Joget which is also known as Ronggeng is believed to be introduced in Malacca during the early 16th century. The fast paced famous dance can be
usually seen performed at cultural festivals, weddings and many other social functions.
Zapin, is believed to have started alongside the spread of Islam in the 15th century. It was introduced by the Arab traders and missionaries from Yemen.
(d) Clothing
The following are some examples of clothing that are preserved from folk
culture.
(i) Indian Sari
Sari is known worldwide as traditional clothing worn by Indian women. The sari is usually worn by women whereas men would
usually wear the Kurta. Sari is usually five to six yards long and will be paired with a blouse or choli. The sari wraps around the body and the
pallu which is the printed end will be draped over the left shoulder.
(ii) Chinese Samfoo and Cheong Sam
Samfoo or samfu is the Chinese term for everyday attire. It comprises two pieces of clothing with the upper garment called Sam (shirt or
blouse) and Fu (pair of trousers). The cheong sam is a traditional long dress worn by Chinese women. It
originates from a tight-fitting costume that was usually worn by the wives and daughters of aristocrats during the Ching Dynasty. It is
buttoned at the neck with slits down both sides of the skirt. The traditional Cheong Sam reaches down to the ankles and has short
sleeves.
(iii) Malay Songket
Malay songket is a type of fabric (see Figure 5.5). Songket motifs and colours in the early years would usually be an indicator of the status and
position of the wearer. Songket used to be worn only by royalty and the aristocrats. Songket is made by weaving threads using traditional loom
or Kek to weave classic design with motif and embellishment. The process is very challenging as it involves intricate designs and detail. The
process of weaving has to be calculated perfectly to create a perfect piece of songket.
Figure 5.5: Malay songket
Source: http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/05/20/weaving-his-way-tosuccess-taking-pride-in-his-craft-hafsin-only-produces-the-finest-songket/
Name a few of the folk cultures that you know. What is so special about them? Share your thoughts in the online forum.
ACTIVITY 5.3
? Mass culture and popular culture are not interchangeable.
? Mass culture is a set of cultural values and ideas that arise from common
exposure of a population.
? Urbanisation, industrial revolution and rapid development of mass
communication have made development of mass culture possible.
? Popular culture is also known as pop culture and is largely affected by
industries that distribute cultural materials.
? Subculture is derived from popular culture itself.
? Some subcultures develop due to people wanting to be different.
? Common types of subculture being practised in Malaysia are punk head, skinhead, hip hop, heavy metal, gothic, skater, cosplay and gamer.
? Counterculture used to be associated with the rebellion culture.
? Counterculture refers to a way of life among any group of people whose beliefs, values, styles and attitudes differ from the prevailing culture.
? Folk culture is inherited from the older generation and emphasises on tradition.
? Some elements of folk culture that are preserved in Malaysia include traditional architecture, music, dance and clothing.
Counterculture
Folk culture
Mass culture
Popular culture
Subculture
Tradition
Bahauddin, A., Hardono, S., Abdullah, A., & Maliki, N. Z. (2012). The Minangkabau
house: Architectural and culture elements. WIT Transactions on Ecology and
the Environment, 165.
Golka, M. (2008). Sociology of culture. Warsaw, Poland: Scientific Publishing
Scholar.
Hebdige, D. (2002). Subculture: The meaning of style (2nd ed.). London, England:
Routledge.
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