Introduction Communication Sem 3-1-5

Tooppic11
Introduction
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic you should be able to:1. Identify the definition of communication as used in this module anddifferentiate between the various types of communication processes; 2. List elements in public speaking; 3. Explain basic principles in public speaking; and 4. Differentiate between types of speeches based on the purpose andmethod of delivery.

INTRODUCTION
Communication can be defined as the sharing of meanings between two or more people with one party acting as the source and the other, the receiver. The source here refers to any party that initiates the information whereas the receiver is the target of the transaction. In the information transmission process, the source must be able to choose a suitable channel to carry his message.
2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
In daily interactions, it is not possible for people to avoid communicating with each other. This is especially true since human beings live in an interdependent situation. These interactions are called communication. There are several types of human communication as shown in Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1: Types of communication
The explanation is as follows;
(a) Intrapersonal Communication
This type of communication takes place within an individual. It is considered as the most basic form of communication. Apparently, before a person can communicate with others, he must communicate within himself first. This type of communication involves any thinking, decision making or reflection taking place in a personÊs mind before he transmits his thoughts to other parties.
(b) Interpersonal Communication
This type of communication occurs when an individual communicates with another individual, face to face.
(c) Small Group Communication
This type of communication occurs when a group of individuals interacts with one another. Normally the group consists of between four to twenty members. This number allows each and every member to communicate with other members. Normally the communication centers around a more structured issue. Thus, this kind of communication is generally more objective and more formal than interpersonal communications. Examples of small group communication are group discussions, business meetings and task oriented meetings such as quality control committees.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  3
(d) Public Communication
This type of communication occurs when a source (speaker) delivers his message to a group of receivers (audience). Normally the audience consists of more than twenty individuals. Messages transmitted are very structured, often centering around a predetermined issue or topic. Therefore, the settings for public communication are more formal. Examples of public communication are university lectures, career talks in schools, parliamentary debates, paper presentations in conferences and political speeches in rallies.
ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Public speaking consists of four elements that distinguish it from other forms of human communication. The four elements are shown in Figure 1.2:
Figure 1.2: Public speaking elements
The explanation is as follows.
(a) Speaker
The speaker is the source of the message which consists of meanings to be shared with the members of the audience.
4  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
(b) Speech
The speech is the message that a speaker intends to share with others who make up the members of the audience. It constitutes a topic on a subject matter that is suitable for the intended audience.
(c) Audience
The audience is made up of individuals who have assembled to listen to the speaker. In order to share the meanings of his message, the speaker needs to synchronize them to match his audienceÊs frame of reference or pool of meanings. This would ensure a better understanding of the speech.
(d) Situation
The situation refers to the setting in which the speech is to be delivered. Usually the situation is pre-arranged to enable the speech to be presented to the audience. For instance, a public lecture to be given by an invited speaker at a university needs to have the time, venue and topic planned beforehand.
CANONS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
According to Aristotle in his book The Rhetoric, there are five basic canons that need to be observed and adhered to by anyone who wishes to deliver an effective speech.
Figure 1.3 shows the canons.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  5
Figure 1.3: Canons of public speaking
The explanations are as follows:
(a) Inventio
This refers to the speakerÊs ability to gather information relevant to the topic of presentation. A speaker must put in effort to search for sufficient information to be shared with the audience. The speaker could refer to published materials, attend academic functions, engage himself in discussions, make observations, and view television programmes, and so on.
(b) Dispositio
Apart from gathering information, a speaker must be able to organise the material into a structured speech consisting of three distinct parts, namely the prologue, the body and the epilogue.
(c) Memoria
This canon refers to the speakerÊs ability to understand and master his topic. A person who knows his subject well does not need to memorise every word in the speech.
(d) Elocutio
This canon refers to the speakerÊs ability to choose and use appropriate words or style in his presentation. Avoid the use of jargon and bombastic words. To quote Aristotle, „The best speaker speaks the audiencesÊ language‰.
(e) Pronuntiatio
The fifth canon refers to the speakerÊs skills to deliver his speech. . He must take into consideration elements such as voice control and the use of body language.
6  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEECHES
1.4
Speeches can be classified according to the methods of delivery and purposes.
Figure 1.4 shows the four types of speeches based on the methods of delivery.
Figure 1.4: Types of public speeches
The explanation is as follows:
(a) Impromptu Speeches
This is the most difficult type of speech to deliver because it is presented without prior preparation.
(b) Memorised Speeches
For this type of speech, the speaker memorises his entire speech, just like an actor who memorises his script. The success of this type of speech depends very much on the speakerÊs ability to remember the whole speech. Furthermore, this type of speech is rather rigid and it is difficult to make adjustments in case there are unexpected changes in the speaking situation.
(c) Speeches Read From Texts or Manuscripts
For this type of speech, the speaker reads every word that is written in the text of the speech. This type of speech relies very much on and is limited to everything that is written on the text. Some speakers prepare their own
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  7
texts. Some depend on others to prepare their speeches. These written texts are suitable for presenting facts and accurate details. For instance, in presenting the Budget Speech in parliament, the presenter has no alternative but to read the entire speech.
(d) Extemporaneous Speeches
This type of speech combines some elements from all the three types of speeches discussed earlier. For example, the speaker may read the main ideas, important statements or quotations that need to be presented accurately from his note cards. In addition to that, the speaker memorises how to elaborate these main ideas with simple quotations and examples. Finally, the speaker is able to adjust his presentation spontaneously depending on the audienceÊs reactions and changes in the situation.
Another way of classifying speeches is based on the purpose of presentation as shown in Figure 1.5. There are four types of speeches under this category.
Figure 1.5: Classification of speeches based on purposes
(a) Informative Speeches
In this type of speech, the speaker intends to share some information on a particular topic or issue which will increase the audienceÊs level of knowledge or understanding of it.
(b) Persuasive Speeches
In this type of speech, the speaker aims to influence his audience to agree with his proposition. The intention of the speaker is to change the audienceÊs belief, attitude or behaviour. Thus, speeches during political, social action and commercial campaigns are considered persuasive speeches.
8  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
(c) Speeches to Entertain
In this type of speech, a speakerÊs purpose is to amuse the audience. Normally these speeches are presented at social functions such as luncheons and dinners.
(d) Special Occasion Speeches
These speeches are presented during specific formal functions. Examples are welcoming and opening speeches for a particular programme or function, a speech to award achievers, a speech after receiving an award, and farewell speeches.

Public speaking is an example of human communication. It has four important elements: (a) speaker, (b) speech, (c) audience, and (d) situation.

In order to speak effectively, one needs to gather information, organise it effectively and remember the flow of ideas. One also has to choose simple but accurate terms to represent the ideas and share them with the audience.

Speeches can be categorised based on the purpose of the speech as well as the method of delivery.

Based on the method of delivery, speeches can be classified into: (a) impromptu speeches, (b) memorised speeches, (c) speeches read from texts/manuscripts, and (d) extemporaneous speeches.

In addition, speeches can be classified into the following based on the purposes: (a) informative speeches, (b) persuasive speeches, (c) entertaining speeches, and (d) special occasion speeches.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  9
Communication
Extemporaneous speeches
Impromptu speeches
Informative speeches
Interpersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication
Manuscript speeches
Memorised speeches
Persuasive speeches
Public communication
Small group communication
Special occasion speeches
Speeches to entertain
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent oral communication. 8th ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.


TOPIC 2
INTRODUCTION
Stage fright or nervousness is a normal phenomenon faced by most people. It is
an uneasy feeling of anxiety, and fear experienced by those facing an audience.
This phenomenon is also shared by athletes at the starting line and singers before
a performance.
This feeling is particularly acute in novice speakers, causing them to forget their
words, and then unable to proceed with their presentations. The effect is that
some would rather avoid public speaking situations in future. In other words, if
this matter is not dealt with effectively, the successful transfer of messages
between speaker and audience will never take place.
It is perfectly normal to experience stage fright or nervousness at some point in
our lives. A study conducted in the United States several years ago found that
the majority of the respondents who were civil servants stated that speaking
before an audience was their biggest fear in life (Wallechinsky et.al., 1978). Thus,
should you feel a bit nervous prior to your speech presentation, be assured that
you are as normal as everyone else.
Topic
2
Stage Fright
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the causes of stage fright while standing before an
audience to deliver a speech;
2. Identify symptoms of stage fright; and
3. Determine suitable methods of handling stage fright.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 11
PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF STAGE
FRIGHT
Why is stage fright considered as a normal phenomenon? How does this feeling
develop? In order to answer to these questions, we need to understand the
physiological processes that take place whenever a person is facing his/her
audience.
When we put ourselves in front of an audience, whether it is to speak, sing or
participate in a sporting event, we will normally face two important pressures.
Firstly, the desire to succeed, and secondly, that there is no guarantee of such
success. These two pressing situations linger in our minds, causing a feeling of
tension throughout the body. This tense feeling is felt in the brain which sends a
signal to the adrenal gland (Figure 2.1) at the kidneys. Upon receiving the signal,
the adrenal gland will produce a hormone named adrenalin. This hormone is
normally produced when a person faces shock, excitement, fear, nervousness and
so on. Subsequently, the presence of adrenalin in our bodies will trigger the
secretion of insulin in the pancreas. The insulin produced will be involved in the
sugar conversion process whereby sugar (kept in the body as glucose) will be
transformed into glycogen. This process will produce heat and energy.
Figure 2.1: The adrenal glands play a part in the physiological causes of stage fright
2.1
ACTIVITY 2.1
Besides public speaking, list other activities that you think may
trigger the same feeling of nervousness.
1 2 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
The heat produced in our bodies will lead to an increase in body temperature. In
order to reduce this heat, our bodies will perspire. That is why a person feeling
nervous will sweat.
In addition, energy will also be produced excessively in the body. This excess
energy will be sent to the muscles to be stored. The unused energy will
accumulate in the muscles, consequently causing certain limbs to tremble. These
are the typical physiological causes of stage fright experienced by any person
facing an audience.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES OF STAGE
FRIGHT
Besides physiological causes, there are also psychological reasons that may
trigger nervousness in speakers. Unlike the physiological processes that occur in
the speakerÊs body, the psychological factors develop in the mind. Among others,
the factors are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Psychological causes of stage fright
2.2
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Explain what you understand by the term physiology.
2. Elaborate what happens physiologically in a speakerÊs body
when he/she is facing an audience to deliver a speech.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 13
The explanations are as follows:
(a) SpeakerÊs Fear of being Evaluated
Whenever a person feels that he/she is being observed and evaluated,
he/she will be in a stressful situation. This may be due to that personÊs need
for perfectionism. Striving for excellence and perfection will put the person in
a more difficult and critical situation, thus triggering nervousness.
(b) Critical Outcomes of the Speeches
The speaker who is anxious that the success or failure of the speech will
determine his/her future, will definitely feel the pressure. For instance, when
presenting a controversial topic, a speaker will feel anxious throughout the
speech. This is not the same for the speaker who is presenting a normal topic.
The psychological see-saw will naturally generate anxiety and apprehension.
(c) SpeakerÊs Lack of Public Speaking Skills
The novice speaker will feel more nervous due to his unfamiliarity with the
situation. The lack of exposure and not knowing how to react to the audience
may result in an uneasy feeling. This uneasiness will consequently lead to
apprehension.
(d) SpeakerÊs Lack of Knowledge of His/Her Subject
The speaker who has not acquired enough information on a particular topic
but has no choice but to deliver the topic will definitely experience a feeling
of inadequacy and lack of confidence. These feelings will affect his/her
concentration and consequently generate stage fright.
(e) SpeakerÊs Lack of Preparation
A speaker who fails to prepare thoroughly for his/her presentation due to a
lack of time, or a last minute change of topic, or encounters an unfamiliar
speaking situation or equipment, will be saddled with uncertainties. These
uncertainties will definitely lead the speaker to be apprehensive while
facing the audience.
(f) Fear of a Distinguished Audience
A speaker who notices the presence of certain distinguished or respected
individuals will feel uneasy. This is perhaps due to the speakerÊs perception
of the ability of such individuals to evaluate his/her performance. This
feeling will affect his focus on the speech and thus trigger nervousness.
The combination of physiological and psychological factors will compound a
speakerÊs nervousness, especially the novice ones. If the speaker fails to handle
this anxiety effectively, not only is his presentation interrupted, but in extreme
1 4 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
cases the speaker has to quit the presentation without achieving his objectives.
When this happens, the speaker, apparently ruins not only his own credibility
but also the organisation he represents.
SYMPTOMS OF STAGE FRIGHT
After examining the causes of stage fright, it is important for a speaker to
understand its symptoms. The symptoms of stage fright can be divided into
physiological and psychological symptoms. Firstly, let us examine the
physiological symptoms in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Physiological Symptoms of Stage Fright
No. Physiological Symptom Explanation
1. Shivering Speaker shivers due to the production of excess
energy as a result of the bodyÊs sugar conversion
process. This unused excess energy will
accumulate and get stored in the muscles such
as the knees and fingers, causing them to
tremble.
2. Shortness of breath This is due to the lack of oxygen in the speakerÊs
body. In this case, the blood in the body is being
used to transport oxygen to the brain to enable
the speaker to stay awake. This happens when a
person is feeling excited and anxious.
3. Sweating Sweating or perspiration is a bodily reaction to
regulate body temperature and to control the
excess heat generated in the body. Body
temperatures will be higher if extra heat energy
is produced in the sugar conversion process.
2.3
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Explain what you understand by the term psychological.
2. Elaborate what happens psychologically when a speaker faces
an audience to deliver a speech?
3. Differentiate between the psychological and physiological
causes of stage fright.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 15
4. Accelerated heart beat Whenever a person is shocked, excited or
nervous, his body prepares him to be on a
constant state of alertness. Thus, more and more
oxygen is needed to be sent to the brain. The
heart must work extra hard, pumping blood to
transport oxygen to the brain.
5. Dry lips This is probably due to the heat produced in the
body. For some speakers, the increase in body
temperature will lead to dry lips and in some
instances even make them thirsty.
6. Tenseness throughout
the body
This is due to the unequal distribution of blood
and oxygen in the speakerÊs body. Eventually
the failure of the body to regulate this
distribution will confuse the bodyÊs systems.
That is why some speakers feel like vomiting or
urinating while waiting for their turn to speak.
7. Monotonous voice This is due to the speakersÊ inability to control
his intonation.
8. Uncontrollable speech
rate
This is due to the speakerÊs failure to control his
rate of speech. In some cases the nervous
speaker speeds up his speech so he can finish
fast and in other cases a speaker slows down
due to the fear of making any mistake
9. Vocalised pauses This is probably due to the speaker being
momentarily lost for words and searching for a
suitable word to resume his speech. Thus, the
speaker needs to pause and think. In doing so,
he fills the silent pauses with vocals such as
uhmm, arrr, etc.
10. Blackout This happens in extreme cases where the
speaker is too scared, thus putting himself in a
very stressful situation. Apparently the
speakerÊs body fails to function normally and
blood is not sent adequately to the brain.
Consequently the brain cannot function as usual
and as a result, the speaker collapses.
Besides the physiological symptoms, the following psychological symptoms can
also be seen or felt by speakers experiencing speech anxiety. Table 2.2
summarises these psychological symptoms.
1 6 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
Table 2.2: Psychological Symptoms of Stage Fright
No. Psychological Symptom Explanation
1. Fear of facing the audience Knowing that all eyes will be on him, the
speaker is overwhelmed with fear and selfconsciousness.
As he is under observation, he
feels that he cannot afford to make any
mistakes in the presentation.
2. Shyness A nervous speaker will also feel too shy to
stand before the audience or become their
focus of attention. This perhaps is due to his
feelings of inadequacy or uneasiness.
3. Fear of eye-contact A nervous speaker tends to feel that his entire
movement is under close scrutiny of the
audience. Thus, he becomes afraid of looking
at the audience in the eye.
4. Fear of not being able to
remember ideas
The speaker becomes too concerned with
what to say next or that he cannot remember
his lines to the extent it may affect his
presentation. This discomfort will lead to
confusion and loss of focus, which
consequently generates more anxiety.
5. Withdraw In extreme cases, the speaker deliberately
finds excuses to avoid public speaking
situations. They will resort to any endeavour,
including telling lies, if this can help get them
exempted from appearing before an audience.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1. State the differences between psychological and physiological
symptoms of stage fright.
2. Provide three psychological and three physiological
symptoms that you think you will experience whenever you
are delivering a speech.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 17
HANDLING STAGE FRIGHT
After identifying the causes and symptoms of stage fright, let us now look into
the methods of handling the phenomenon. You should understand that
nervousness cannot be eliminated totally. What we can do is merely to control
nervousness or to reduce it to a manageable state where it does not interfere with
the transfer of messages to the audience. Table 2.3 summarises the methods to
handle stage fright.
Table 2.3: Methods to Handle Stage Fright
No. Method Explanation
1. Analyse your audience A speaker who knows his audience is more
capable of synchronising his speech with the
audience. Thus, the speech will easily meet
audience expectations. Once the words of the
speaker manage to be in line with the audienceÊs
needs, it will be much easier to get their agreement
and approval. When a speaker realises that his
words are accepted and approved by the audience,
either through their smiles, nods, or applause, he
will be more enthusiastic and stimulated to resume
his presentation. Eventually he will forget his
anxiety and enjoy the opportunity of sharing his
ideas with the audience.
2. Thorough preparations A thorough preparation is the most important
method of handling nervousness in public
presentations. There is no alternative to thorough
preparations. These preparations include making
the effort to look for adequate materials for the
speech, planning and organising the speech,
identifying the suitable language to be used,
preparing strong arguments to support claims
and systematically rehearsing the delivery. These
preparations will make the speaker familiar with
his speech, enabling him to master the topic. This
will increase the speakerÊs confidence and he will
be more convincing.
2.4
1 8 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
3. Light physical exercises This physical method is similar to warming up
exercises amongst athletes. The light physical
exercises or isometrics will help with the balanced
distribution and circulation of blood in the body.
Additionally, these exercises will also help to
burn the excess energy being stored in the
muscles. This will reduce shivering and
consequently make the speaker physically more
fit and at ease in carrying out his speaking tasks.
4. Deep breathing This is another physical method. Taking a deep
breath will provide enough oxygen to the body.
While feeling nervous, more oxygen is needed in
the brain. Thus, breathing deeply will take in
more oxygen into the body to be distributed to
the brain. This will definitely relax the body and
make the speaker feel at ease. Therefore, it is
always advisable to take a deep breath a couple of
times while waiting for your turn to speak.
5. Focus on the friendly
audience
Upon taking the rostrum or the speaking position,
and before uttering the first word, a speaker
should first look at the audience. At this moment,
the speaker is normally at the peak of his
nervousness. Try to focus on those friendly faces,
those who look and smile at you. By looking and
smiling at them prior to beginning your speech,
you are establishing a rapport with them. This will
psychologically remove any barriers between the
speaker and his audience, eventually removing the
stress of having to stand in front of them.
6. Move around The more a speaker moves around during the
presentation, the more he burns up the excess
energy stored in the body. Thus, the speaker will
feel more relaxed and at ease. Nonetheless, the
movement must be a meaningful one, not merely
walking around on the stage. The speaker should
practice his moves in order to make them relevant
to his verbal presentation.
We have just discussed some effective methods in handling stage fright in public
speaking. A speaker must practice these methods consistently in order to make
them suitable for him. Once the speaker has decided what works for him, he
should be able to control his stage fright effectively in any public speaking
situation.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 19
Stage fright is a normal phenomenon experienced by every speaker.
Stage fright can be controlled or reduced to a level where it does not interfere
with the transfer of messages between the speaker and the audience.
In order to handle stage fright effectively, we must understand its causes and
symptoms, physiologically and psychologically.
A speaker should be able to identify suitable methods to handle stage fright
effectively.
Communication apprehension
Methods of handling stage fright
Nervousness
Physiological causes
Physiological symptoms
Psychological causes
Psychological symptoms
Speech anxiety
Stage fright
ACTIVITY 2.5
1. Explain the psychological methods that can be used in
handling stage fright.
2. Explain the physical methods that can be used in handling
stage fright.
2 0 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.


TOPIC 3
INTRODUCTION
An analysis of your audience and the situation in which you will be speaking is
vital in speech making. This is because the audience is the target of the speech
and whether or not your objectives are met lies with the audience. Knowing
more about the target group helps the speaker to tailor his speech to their level,
thereby enhancing the audienceÊs understanding of the subject matter. Similarly,
the speechmaker should have some background information of the situation too
so that he is prepared for any eventualities.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Topic
3
Analysing the
Audience,
Event and
Situation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the importance of analysing the audience, situation, and
event prior to a public speech presentation;
2. Identify the techniques of analysing an audience; and
3. List the items to be considered in analysing the speaking situation
and event.
The Prime Minister is delivering a speech to a group of people in a
village. Who do you think are amongst the audience? Explain the
possible situations which may occur during the speech.
2 2 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE
There are two categories of audience characteristics which need to be considered
by a speaker. The first category is made up of demographic characteristics
whereas the second consists of situational characteristics of the audience.
The demographic characteristics are as follows:
(a) AudienceÊs Age
The speaker needs to know in general the age groups of his/her audience.
Will the audience consist of youngsters, school-goers, adolescents, adults,
or senior citizens? This is important since different age groups will require
different approaches in speech preparation especially in matters of style,
organisation, and examples.
(b) AudienceÊs Gender
Will the audience be all male, all female or a mixed group? This is
particularly important since there are specific topics that may be gendersensitive.
Knowing the audienceÊs gender beforehand will allow the
speaker to be better prepared so as not to offend certain parties in the
audience.
(c) AudienceÊs Religious Affiliations
Religion is a sensitive matter, especially in a multi-religious society such as
Malaysia. If we are required to present a speech that will touch on religious
matters, we need to know our audienceÊs religious affiliations. This is
because we cannot afford to offend anyone by commenting negatively on
their beliefs. For example, criticizing or making fun of another personÊs
religious taboos. It is preferable to talk about the universal values shared by
all religious beliefs. .
(d) AudienceÊs Ethnic Backgrounds
Similar to religious beliefs, certain aspects of race and ethnicity are also
sensitive matters. Thus a speaker needs to be extra cautious when speaking
on certain issues pertaining to the above matters. Touching on the positive
aspects of race or ethnicity is more acceptable.
(e) AudienceÊs Occupations
The audienceÊs occupations often determine the level of language, the
suitability of examples and the types of arguments to be used in the speech.
Does the audience consist of those working in private firms or in
government agencies? Are they entrepreneurs or job seekers?
3.1
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 23
(f) AudienceÊs Educational Attainments
Knowing the audienceÊs level of education is vital since it determines their
ability to understand the vocabulary, line of argument and examples used
by the speaker. Thus it is imperative for the speaker to acquire this
information in preparing his speech.
(g) AudienceÊs Political Inclinations or Ideologies
In some societies political ideology is a sensitive matter. Therefore in order
to avoid disparaging any party, it is recommended that the speaker takes
into consideration the political ideology subscribed by his audience. If
possible try to avoid discussing political issues unless the topic revolves
around politics.
The situational characteristics of the audience may differ from one occasion to
another. For instance, an audience that we face today may be different from the
one we are going to face the following week, even though we may be discussing
the same issue. Among other things, a speaker needs to consider:
(a) Audience Size
This refers to the number of people who make up the audience. The size of
the audience would determine whether the speaker should use audiovisual
aids and/or a public announcement system. It also influences the
speakerÊs bodily movements when facing the audience. Speaking before
thirty people is not the same as addressing a crowd of three thousand.
(b) Audience Homogeneity
This characteristic determines the choice of words, examples and evidences
that the speaker needs to consider. A homogeneous audience made up of
only teenage girls is easier to deal with than a mixed group of individuals.
With a heterogeneous audience the speaker needs to use several examples
relevant to the mixed group and more elaborations using words that can be
understood by everyone.
(c) AudienceÊs Perception Towards the Topic
It is important to determine the audienceÊs views towards the topic. This is
to enable the speaker to prepare counter arguments in cases where the topic
is a sensitive one. Furthermore, knowing their views beforehand enables
the speaker to choose the best approach to present the topic to them.
(d) AudienceÊs Perceptions Towards the Speaker
As a speaker you also need to consider what your audience thinks of you.
Are you a popular personality, or are you a controversial figure? Are you
someone they canÊt wait to see and listen to, or are you a stranger to them?
2 4 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
To address an audience where the speaker has established a rapport is
easier than to deliver a speech to a group of new people as you need to
work harder to prove to them that you are worth listening to.
(e) AudienceÊs Expectations
It is good to find out the audienceÊs expectations of your topic. What are the
issues that they expect you to elaborate on in the presentation?
If a speaker puts in effort to analyses his audience, he will be more prepared to
present the speech as they will be familiar to him. The speaker will be able to
pitch his speech to meet the audienceÊs level of understanding.
ANALYSING THE EVENT
Besides analysing the audience, it is also important for a speaker to familiarize
himself with the event or function that the speech will be presented in. An event
analysis will enable the speaker to synchronize his speech to suit the occasion. As
a result, the speech will be easier to follow, and thus more effective, since it
correlates with the function. Among the aspects that the speaker needs to be
concerned with are:
(a) The Duration of the Event
The speaker must consider the duration of the whole speaking event.
Sometimes the event may take up to a month, a week, a few days, or several
hours. For example, a conference on climate change could take a week.
Next, find out how much time is allotted for each speaker. In some
functions a speaker may be given as long as two hours or as short as fifteen
minutes. This will determine the amount of information that he needs to
search for, how he will organize his speech and what, audio-visual aids
would be needed, if any.
3.2
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Discuss why an audience analysis is vital in speech making?
2. Explain the differences between the demographic and
situational characteristics of the audience.
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 25
(b) The SpeakerÊs Turn and Time to Present the Speech
Knowing the scheduled time and day of the speech, will guide us in our
preparation. For instance, if we know that we have to speak towards the
end of the day to a saturated, lethargic, and fatigued audience, we would
have to search for more interesting materials.
(c) The Purpose of the Function
This is a fundamental question that a speaker needs to know. With this
information, the speaker will be able to tailor his message to support the
objective of organising such an event.
ANALYSING THE SITUATION
Besides analysing the audience and event, one also needs to analyse the speaking
situation. The speaker needs to find information on the following:
(a) Venue or Location of the Speaking Event
The venue and location of the speaking event will determine the mood and
spirit of the presentation. A venue such as a conference hall, an auditorium,
or a lecture theatre allows the presentation to be made in a more formal
manner. On the other hand, if we are to deliver our speech to an assembly
in a village field or padang, our presentation can be more casual and
informal. The venue and locality will also determine the use and choice of
visual aids.
(b) Facilities Available
Find out what facilities are available. Will there be any rostrum,
microphone, screen, white board, flip chart, laptop computer, or LCD
projectors that you may need in your presentation? Should any of these
facilities be unavailable, you may have to think of alternatives, or bring
them along yourself.
(c) AudienceÊs Seating Arrangements
Find out the audienceÊs seating arrangements. Will it be a classroom or
theatre-style seating arrangement? Or will it be free seating such as in the
3.3
ACTIVITY 3.3
Explain why a speaker needs to make an analysis of the function or
event that he will be speaking in.
2 6 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
field or open arena? The seating arrangement of the audience will influence
the mode of presentation, whether it is formal or casual. A well organised
seating arrangement such as a classroom, a theatre or U-shape normally
demands a more formal presentation, whereas a free and loose
arrangement allows for a more casual or informal talk. Besides that, the
seating arrangement will determine whether the speaker can move around
during the presentation or has to be rooted at the podium.
It is very important for a public speaker to analyse his audience. There are
two types of audience characteristics to be analysed: demographic and
situational.
The demographic characteristics of the audience can be analysed by looking
at their age group, gender, religion, race, occupation, educational background
and also political ideology.
Situational characteristics refer to the audienceÊs size, homogeneity, their
views on the topic, perception towards the speaker and also their
expectations.
Knowing the audience beforehand will help the speaker to pitch his speech to
meet their level of understanding and expectations.
Besides analysing the audience, a speaker also needs to analyse the function
and the situation.
Things about the event that the speaker needs to know are the duration of the
event, the purpose for the function and the speaking schedule. In analysing
the speaking situation, the speaker needs to know the venue and location of
the event, the facilities available as well as the seating arrangement of the
audience.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Why is it important for the speaker to analyse the speaking
situation?
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 27
Analysis of audience
Analysis of events or functions
Analysis of situations
Demographic characteristics
Heterogeneous audience
Homogeneous audience
Situational characteristics
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.



TOPIC 4
INTRODUCTION
The stem or topic of a speech depends very much on the speakersÊ ability to
search for information. This information will be arranged into a specific
organisational pattern to form the complete structure of a speech. The
organisational structure depends on the objective(s) of the speech. For example,
an informative speech will have a different structure compared to a persuasive
speech. It is very important for a speaker to organise his speech since the
audience can only follow and understand organised messages. Disorganised
messages will only confuse them and after a short while will turn them off from
listening to the speakerÊs words.
Topic
4
Gathering and
Organising
Materials
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective ways of gathering of information from
various sources;
2. Explain the techniques to determine the focus of a speech topic;
3. Identify the techniques of organising materials for an informative
speech; and
4. Differentiate between the ways of organising materials in the
body of a speech.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 29
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Assuming that you have been assigned a topic or subject of your speech, the next
step is to jot down whatever comes to your mind regarding the matter. For
example, if you are assigned to talk about drug abuse, you may have some ideas
about this issue from the newspapers, electronic media or from discussions
among your friends. You may even know or have met someone involved in drug
addiction. Now, write down whatever information you have regarding the topic.
The next step is to check your own personal files of newspaper or magazine
clippings if you are one of those who make a habit of keeping materials this way.
You can access the Internet to find more information on the matter. Some
speakers like to make their own notations while attending talks, training courses,
seminars or forums. Now is the time to use these very important notes.
To widen your sources of references, you may want to access the resources in the
library or resource centre. You can choose from various types of references such as
books, journal articles, encyclopaedia, magazines, newspapers, and online
materials relevant to the topic. Additionally, you may want to interview
individuals with authority or expertise, such as the Police DepartmentÊs Narcotics
Division to get some first hand information. Conversations with drug addicts and
their family members could also provide useful insights on your topic.
4.1
ACTIVITY 4.1
ACTIVITY 4.2
Think back on the last talk/lecture that you attended. Try to recall
the main ideas that the speaker tried to convey to the audience.
Were they clearly organised? Discuss.
1. Choose a topic which interests you.
2. Jot down any information that comes to mind regarding the
topic.
3. Now find more information on the topic by consulting
various sources available to you.
3 0 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
We tend to gather enough information for a two or three hour speech, even if we
are given only ten or fifteen minutes to speak.
To help us determine our focus, we could use the ÂCobweb MethodÊ. Through
this method, the topic or the subject matter needs to be placed in the centre to
form the axis of the web. From the centre, we can then branch out with the main
ideas. From each of these main ideas, we can then create several sub-points as
illustrated in Figure 4.1 below.
We can see from the diagram that the topic i.e. drug abuse is placed in the centre,
to form the axis of the web. Then through brainstorming, five main ideas branch
out from the axis (causes, effects, symptoms, addicts and handling).
Subsequently, three sub-points are drawn out from each of the main ideas.
Figure 4.1: The cobweb method
After sketching the cobweb, the speaker needs to select two or three main ideas
with the sub-points due to time constraints. Develop these in detail and organise
them to form a complete speech structure.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Sketch a „cobweb‰ from the topic that you have identified in the
previous activity.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 31
SPEECH FORMAT
After identifying two or three main ideas with the sub-points from the cobweb,
now we can arrange them to form a complete speech structure. The structure
should be based on the informative speech format. The format consists of three
main parts, namely the introduction, body and conclusion. In detail, the format is
as shown in Figure 4.2.
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter
4. Preview
5. Procedure
II. BODY
1. Main ideas and sub-points
2. Supporting materials
III. CONCLUSION
1. Review
2. Memorable statement
3. Closing remarks
Figure 4.2: A speech format
So we can see that a structure of a speech is similar to the anatomy of a human
being. If a human being has three distinctive parts, i.e. head, torso and legs, so
does a speech. The introduction for the speech can be regarded as the head, the
body of the speech as the torso, and the conclusion, the legs.
The first section of a speech is the introduction. Generally, it consists of a greeting
and salutations, an attention getter, and a preview.. This section will take
between 10 and 20 percent of the whole presentation. The body which follows
takes about 70-80 percent of the total speech. It contains the main ideas and
sub-points. These should be supported by the relevant supporting materials. The
third section is the conclusion which takes up the remaining 5-10 percent of the
total speech. It reviews the main ideas and ends with a memorable statement.
4.2
3 2 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
PREPARING A SPEECH OUTLINE
After deciding on the main ideas in the presentation, draw the outline of the
speech. Even though this outline should not be taken along during the speech
delivery, it serves as a useful guideline in preparing the whole speech.
The outline should follow the format as shown in Figure 4.3. It should consist of
the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
Speech topic:
Speech objective:
I. Main idea 1.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
3. Sub-point 3
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
II. Main idea 2.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
4.3
ACTIVITY 4.4
1. List the three main sections of a speech. Elaborate on each of
them.
2. From your cobweb in the previous activity, identify three
main ideas and the sub-points to be presented to your
audience.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 33
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
III. Main idea 3.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
3. Sub-point 3
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
Figure 4.3: A speech outline
Note that it is not necessary to have an equal number of sub-points for every
main idea as well as for elaborations and/or substantiations.
Figure 4.4 is an example of an outline for a speech on drug abuse.
Speech topic: Drug Abuse amongst Teenagers in Malaysia
Speech objective: To enable the audience to understand the phenomenon
of drug abuse among Malaysian teenagers.
A) The introduction
B) The body
i) The addicts
Students.
- School children.
- Students from Higher Learning Institutions.
Non-students
- School drop-outs.
ii) Causes of drug abuse
External factors.
- Peer influence.
- Media and influence of foreign cultures
3 4 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
Family factors.
- Busy parents.
- Uncaring family.
- Lack of family cohesiveness.
Weak religious devotion.
- Lack of religious knowledge.
- Lack of religious practices.
Frustration and disappointment.
- In work or study.
iii) Effects of drug abuse
Effects on the individual.
- Mental problems.
- Physical problems.
Effects on the family of the addicts.
- Emotional trauma suffered by family members.
- Social stigma faced by family members.
Effects on society.
- Public disturbances.
- Negative effects on the countryÊs productivity.
- Wasted potential of youths.
- High cost of rehabilitating addicts.
- Time and resources wasted in combating the drug
menace.
C) The conclusion
Figure 4.4: Example of an outline for a speech on drug abuse
ACTIVITY 4.5
1. Arrange the three main ideas and sub-points that you have
identified in Activity 4.4 into a complete structure for an
informative speech.
2. Prepare your speech outline based on the structure.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 35
ORGANISING THE BODY OF A SPEECH
The body of a speech needs to be systematically organised to enable the audience
to follow the speech easily. This part of the speech consists of the main ideas
which are divided into several sub-points. The sub-points are supplemented with
supporting materials which serve two functions. Firstly, to strengthen the subpoints,
for example, using facts, statistics and quotations collected from various
credible sources. The speakerÊs observations and relevant past experiences can
also be used to support the sub-points.
The second function of supporting materials is to embellish or enhance the subpoints.
This can be in the form of humorous statements, a poem, or proverbs to
sustain audience interest.
There are several options for arranging the main ideas of a speech. Some of them
are as follows:
(a) Spatial Order
For this arrangement, the main ideas are set out based on geography. For
instance, according to provinces, districts, states, countries, regions, or
continents.
Example:
I. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Perak.
II. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Negeri Sembilan.
III. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Pahang.
(b) Chronological Order
Here, the main ideas are arranged based on the chronology of events, and
the time spans may be stated in centuries, decades, years, months, weeks,
and days.
Example:
I. The development of Malay music in the 50s.
II. The development of Malay music in the 60s.
III. The development of Malay music in the 70s.
IV. The development of Malay music in the 80s.
4.4
3 6 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
(c) Sub-topical Order
In this type of arrangement the main ideas are organised based on subtopics.
This is the most commonly used arrangement in most speeches.
Example:
I. Degree programmes offered in University Malaya
II. Entrance requirements for international students.
III. Tuition fees.
(d) Cause and Effect
For this arrangement the main ideas are organised based on a causal
relationship. Initially, the main ideas discuss the causes of a phenomenon
whereas the subsequent ideas focus on its effects or consequences.
Example:
I. Education will overcome illiteracy
II. Once people are literate, information on development can easily be
disseminated.
III. Information dissemination will expedite development of a nation.
A speaker should be able to identify and choose a type of arrangement that is
most suitable for the materials he has gathered. Some materials are best arranged
chronologically, but some are more effective when spatially arranged.
A public speaker must be skillful in gathering materials to be delivered to an
audience. He must know where to look for information in preparing for his
speech.
ACTIVITY 4.6
1. Explain the four types of arrangement for the main ideas in the
body of a speech.
2. Choose a pattern that best suits the materials that you have
identified in the previous activity. Organise your main ideas
based on that pattern.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 37
Once the speaker has gathered enough information, he must focus on certain
main ideas to be shared with the audience since the duration for his speech is
normally limited. One of the ways to determine the focus is through the
cobweb method.
The main ideas identified from the cobweb need to be arranged in a certain
fashion to suit the audience and the objective of the presentation. This
arrangement will form a complete structure of a speech which consists of the
introduction, the body and the conclusion.
Cause and effects
Chronological order
Cobweb method
Information gathering
Main ideas
Online materials
Organisation
Printed sources of information
Spatial order
Speech outline
Speech structure
Sub-points
Sub-topical order
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.



TOPIC 5

INTRODUCTION
After preparing the body of the speech, the next step is to plan how to introduce the speech to the audience since it determines whether or not the audience will pay attention from the start and continue to listen to the rest of the speech. A good introduction is just like a good promotion. It will get the audience to patiently follow through with the speech till its conclusion. On the other hand, a poor introduction will put them off.
An introduction of a speech aims to prepare the audience to listen with an open heart and mind. Additionally, a good introduction is planned so that it can develop audience interest and attract their attention to the topic at hand.
Topicc
Planning an Introduction and Conclusion

5
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective techniques of planning the introduction of aspeech;
2. Arrange appropriate salutations of a speech; and
3. Identify the effective techniques of planning the conclusion of a speech.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  39
ACTIVITY 5.1
Try to recall the last talk/lecture that you attended. Try to remember how the speaker introduced his speech and how he concluded it. Note them down.
PLANNING THE INTRODUCTION
5.1
An introduction in a speech consists of several items as shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Items in the introduction section of a speech
The explanation is as follows:
(a)
Greetings
At the beginning of a speech, the speaker needs to greet the audience accordingly. A Muslim speaker addressing a Muslim audience will offer salam (greetings of peace) whereas in a multi-religious situation he or she can greet the audience with „Good morning‰ or whatever is appropriate to that particular time of the day.
(b)
Salutations
In Malaysia, especially in formal functions involving dignitaries and public figures, the speaker needs to prepare this section according to the protocol procedures observed in the states or at the federal level. Generally the bigger and more formal events will require more complicated salutations since it involves more important guests of honour. These important people must be addressed according to their social hierarchy, during the
4 0  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
introduction of a speech prior to the elaboration of our main ideas. In addressing these dignitaries we need to call them by their proper title and designation. Table 5.1 shows some examples of Malaysian official salutations:
Table 5.1: Examples of Malaysian Official Salutations
Forms of Salutations Dignitaries
Yang Amat Berhormat Prime Minister, Deputy Prime
Minister, Menteri Besar, Chief
Ministers.
Yang Amat Berbahagia The wife of the Prime Minister,
Prime Minister, Deputy Prime
Minister, Menteri Besar, Chief
Ministers, and those with the title of ÂTUNÊ.
Yang Berhormat Members of Parliament, Cabinet
Ministers, Members of State
Assemblies, State Exco Members, Speakers of Parliament and State Assemblies, State Secretaries, State Legal Advisors, State Financial Officers or Treasurers.
Yang Berbahagia Heads of Government Departments.
Apart from the forms of salutations, a speaker also needs to observe titles bestowed upon the public figures attending the function. Normally the titles used in Malaysian society are: Tun, Tan Sri, DatoÊ Seri, DatoÊ Paduka, DatoÊ Seri Utama, DatoÊ Seri Amar DiRaja, Datuk Wira, Datuk Patinggi, Datuk Amar, DatoÊ and Datuk.
The Malaysian protocol system also allows particular titles to be used by the wives of dignitaries. For example: Toh Puan, Puan Sri, Datin Seri and Datin.
(c)
Attention Getter
It is imperative for a speaker to grab the audienceÊs attention prior to discussing the topic right from the start. At times, due to elaborate salutations, the audienceÊs attention fades away by the time the speaker gets to the end of the protocol list. Some of the approaches to attract the audience attention are:
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  41
(i) Posing a startling statement
More often than not the audience are attracted to statements that are unusual or extraordinary, as long as they are relevant to the topic.
(ii) Presenting statistics or quantification
Startling statistics presented at the beginning of a speech are capable of attracting audience attention. For instance, a speaker quotes that there are about 200,000 drug addicts in Malaysia currently. This statement will invite the audience to follow the entire speech in order to understand the severity of the problem of drug abuse in the country.
(iii) Asking questions
Sometimes, the speakers might pose a Ârhetorical questionÊ which needs no answer from the members of the audience but which serves to encourage them to ponder over.
(iv) Stating quotations from credible sourcess
Relevant quotations stated at the beginning of a speech will be able to draw audience attention. In order to be able to quote from credible sources, one has no alternative but to read. The quotations can be from books, magazines, newspapers, journal articles or even online materials. The more popular the source, the more attention paid by the audience. Besides published materials, quotations can also come from the words of public figures, leaders, authorities or experts in relevant fields, locally or internationally. In order to avoid plagiarism, speakers are recommended to cite the source of information accurately every time he/she quotes.
(v) Injecting humour
Humorous statements are also capable of attracting audience attention if properly inserted at the beginning of a speech. However, to use humour effectively in a speech, one needs to abide by certain guidelines. For instance, never tell the audience that we have a joke to tell but rather tell them that we have something to share with them. Avoid using ÂdirtyÊ jokes in our speech. This might offend certain quarters in the audience. A speaker should present the humorous statement to the audience in a conversational manner and laugh with them.
(d)
Preview
In the preview, the speaker states the topic and the main ideas or scope of the presentation. For example, „Today, I would like to take this opportunity to share with you the problem of drug abuse in Malaysia. In discussing this topic, I will divide my presentation into three sections. First, I will explain
4 2  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
the current status of the phenomenon. Secondly I will discuss the impact of drug abuse in this country. Finally, I will present to you the efforts to combat the problem.‰
A speech preview prepares the audience to follow the speech. With it, the audience is able to visualise the scope and boundaries of the discussion.
(e)
Procedure
This approach is optional. Besides introducing any assistant who will help in the speech presentation, the speaker informs the audience of the apparatus and audio-visual aids that are to be used. Since not all topics require the above, this part should be included only whenever necessary.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1.
Based on the speech that you have prepared in the previous activities, construct the introduction of the speech. Assume that there are invited individuals attending your formal presentation. 2. Choose and develop a suitable attention getter for your speech. 3. Plan your speech preview.
PLANNING A CONCLUSION
5.2
Similar to the introduction, the conclusion of a speech needs to be systematically planned. A good conclusion will give the audience a sense of satisfaction and a longing to listen to the same speaker again in the future.
The conclusion of a speech should include the following three elements: review, memorable statement and closing remarks.
(a)
Review
A review recapitulates the main ideas that have been presented in the body of a speech. In short, a review merely repeats the preview. For example „⁄Ladies and gentlemen, now we have reached the conclusion of my presentation. Throughout my speech I have shared with you the problem of drug abuse in Malaysia. I have explained the current status of the issue. I have also presented to you the impact of drug abuse on society. Finally, I have discussed the measures taken by the government in handling the phenomenon⁄‰
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  43
(b)
Memorable Statement
This element is an attempt by the speaker to sow certain points into the audienceÊs mind. There are various approaches in carrying out this intention. Amongst others, the methods are:
(i)
Referring to a Theme or Motto
Sometimes relating the essence of your presentation to the theme of the programme or the motto of the organising party will make the statement stick in the audienceÊs mind for quite a long time.
(ii)
Projecting the Future
Through this method the speaker attempts to visualise the consequences in the future based on the essence of his/her speech. For example, in the speech on drug abuse, the speaker tries to project the effects of the abuse on the future generations of the country should we fail to solve the problem.
(iii)
Offering a Reminder
Through this approach the speaker takes the opportunity at the end of the speech to remind the audience of certain important issues related to the topic. It may also be an exhortation or suggestion for them to take action about the issue.
(iv)
Reading Out Poems
Some speakers prefer to end their speeches with poetic annotations. For instance, at the end of a speech, one speaker reads an inspirational poem by Lorene Harshman entitled ÂLive like a winnerÊ
live like a winner
give life all you've got
make your best shot
live like a winner
rock what you've got
just don't get caught
live like a winner
try your best
put your mind to the test
live like a winner
and you will do great
(Source: http://www.poetryamerica.ccom/)
4 4  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
(c)
Closing Remarks
This refers to the speakerÊs parting words. Normally, speakers in Malaysia prefer to say „Thank you‰ in appreciation to the audience for their attention to the speech. Muslim speakers usually leave their audience with salam similar to the greeting at the beginning of the speech.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1.
Basedon the speech that you have prepared in the previous activities, construct a conclusion for the speech. 2. Choose and develop the most suitable memorable statement for your speech. 3. Plan your speech review and your closing remarks.

A speech introduction needs to be systematically planned. The introduction normally consists of greetings, salutations, an attention getter, a preview and procedure.

A good introduction will arouse audience interest and hold it throughout the speech.

A speech conclusion needs to be systematically designed. This part consists of a review, a memorable statement and closing remarks.

An effective conclusion will help the audience to remember the speech.
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  45
Attention getter
Body
Closing remarks
Conclusion
Greetings
Introduction
Main ideas
Memorable statement
Preview
Procedure
Review
Salutations
Abdul Mua'ti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J.W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th. ed. Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G.M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill Educational Publishing.
Walter, O.M and Scott R.L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent oral communication. 8th ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.