2 BASIC JOURNALISM T9-11

INTRODUCTION
Photographs have always been a mainstay of the print media. Photographs can
brighten up a dull page that is full of column after column of text.
Photographs play an important role in telling the story. It should not be treated
as something to fill a gap in the newspaper. A news item that is accompanied by
a photograph will have a higher readership than an item without a picture.
Topic
9
News and
Photographs

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the functions of photographs;
2. Describe the rules of how to use a photograph;
3. Elaborate on how to write cutlines; and
4. Define what constitutes misleading pictures.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

TOPIC 9 NEWS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Pictures play an important role in the publication of print media. The saying that
a picture is worth a thousand words is true. It brings zest to a lifeless printed
page. The picture brings attention to details that are difficult to show in words.
With a picture, readers are „brought‰ to the scene where and when an event
occurred. They may not be physically there but through the lenses of the
photographer, they are able to „transport‰ themselves momentarily to the scene.
If the scene is a picture of agony, the reader can feel the emotion, or if the scene
is a picture of victory, the reader can react with joy. Thus, photographs are an
important medium to connect readers with what is happening around them.
The photographer only acts as a mediator between the people or an event being
photographed and the audience. This does not mean that the role of the
photographer who selects what will be captured on film is trivial.
The press photographer is always on the look-out for good shots. This is a
difficult task to execute and more so to ask somebody to re-enact, especially in an
accident or a war. If you miss your first chance of shooting it, it will be forever
gone. It was horrifying to watch the collapse of the World Trade Centre in New
York on September 11, 2001, but we were able to watch it because there was
someone out there who took pictures of it.
Images of the huge passenger aeroplane slamming into one of the twin towers
will be forever played in the minds of those who watched the catastrophic event
on television (see Figure 9.1). We have seen them because someone took shots of
the dreadful scenes. Newspapers all over the world published the spine-chilling
photographs. For several days after, the electronic media repeatedly showed the
alarming scenes.
9.1
ACTIVITY 9.1
Look at the picture. Can you guess what the
picture is trying to convey?

Figure 9.4: The collapse of the New York World Trade Centre
Source: http://www.september112001.com/
A reporter writes a news item using his computer and the photographer does it
using a camera. Photographers know that editors are very selective of the
pictures they choose to publish. A bad photograph will be rejected much like the
case of a poorly written news copy. Thus a well-composed photograph is highly
prized by newspapers because it can never be re-shot. Getting it right is of great
importance to the photo journalists.
The importance of photographs for newspapers can be seen by the appointment
of a specialised person to handle the job of a photo editor. The photo editor is
usually a photographer by training. He or she is trained to look out for good
story telling photographs. They seek photographs that can conjure emotions and
visual imageries in the hearts and minds of newspaper readers.
The advent of the digital camera allowed pictures taken anywhere in the world
to be transmitted to the head office of the publication effortlessly. The captured
pictures can be viewed by the photographer before he or she decides to transmit
the photographs back home. In the past, the film had to be sent for processing
before we could see the results. There was no way that we would know whether
the pictures would come out as expected. This is no longer the case with digital
cameras.

Figure 9.2: Canon EOS 5D Mark III DSLR Camera
Source: http://www.canon.com.my/personal/products/dslrs/eos/eos-5d-mark-iii-kitef-
25-105-f4l-is-usm?languageCode=EN
The latest digital cameras, especially those made for professional photographers
are today equipped with interchangeable lenses. The use of different lenses
allows photographers to compose the various elements in a picture perfectly
before snapping it. They can view the result of the shot and decide whether to
shoot another frame.
The beauty of digital cameras is that it allows us to enhance the quality of the
photographs through the use of third party computer software such Adobe
Photoshop or Print Shop Pro. This software allows us to change the brightness,
colour and other aspects of an image to improve its quality.
GUIDELINES FOR USING PHOTOGRAPHS
Newspapers are well aware of two ground rules that prohibit them from using
misleading pictures. The two rules are as follows (Figure 9.3).
9.2
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What are the functions of photographs?

Figure 9.3: The two rules for not using misleading pictures
Figures in a photograph can be cropped out if they are not central to the story.
But cropping of individuals must not in anyway alter the character of the group.
(a) Dead Bodies
Besides misleading pictures, photo editors are also cautioned against using
pictures of dead bodies. Death is a common occurrence and dead bodies are
not a strange phenomenon. We see them all the time in car accidents. But to
the editor of a newspaper, he or she has to decide how the dead should be
portrayed. What are the rules in times of war? Should you show images of
mutilated and maimed bodies of war victims?
Portraying the dead in times of war is complicated by the fact that the
media may be used for propaganda purposes. Several questions that
ought to be asked before using images of war are:
(i) What consequences do you foresee from depicting such images?
(ii) Will the audience be more knowledgeable about an event on seeing
such images?
(iii) What purpose would you have in showing such images?
(iv) What do you know about the source of the images?
A composite photograph in which images of individuals on
separate prints are placed together as though they had appeared
on a single photograph.
A cutout photograph in which the images of individual persons
are eliminated from a group in such a way as to change the
relationship.
3
4
ACTIVITY 9.2
How about portraying dead bodies or nudity in the media? Are
there any clear-cut guidelines for using these types of pictures?
Discuss with your coursemates.

Printing images of dead bodies is a matter of taste, thus you will not find
any correct answer. It all depends on the moral norms of our society. A
good test whether to print an image is by looking at it and considering
whether you are comfortable looking at it. If you feel nauseated by looking
at such images, I guess your audience would too. Dead bodies border on
issues of privacy, taste, news value and potential harm to your audience.
(b) Exposing Nudity
Exposing nudity is another contentious issue with the Malaysian mass
media. How do you define nudity? Does nudity constitute exposing the
whole human body? What about photographs of women who are scantily
dressed?
What about publishing photographs of males with their buttocks exposed? If
it is permissible to publish photographs of the buttocks of a child so, is it
acceptable to print a similar shot consisting of grown-up males? The New
Straits Times on April 9, 2003 published on page B22 a photograph of a row
of naked British soldiers with their exposed buttocks taking a shower on a
beach in Basra, Iraq. The cutline of the photograph that appeared in the New
Straits Times reads:
The Full Monty. British soldiers from two platoons cooling down with
the help of an improvised shower unit near Basra on Monday. The
public show in a land which disapproves of nudity in public could be
interpreted as reflecting the disdain the invaders have for local cultural
mores.

9.2.1 Rules in Choosing Photographs
In choosing photographs that will be published, there are three important rules
to follow. These rules can be seen in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4: Three important rules in choosing photographs
(a) The subject is in action
Pictures that are finally selected to be published by a newspaper are those
that tell a story. A picture that is worth a thousand words is NOT the type
of picture that you snapped during your holiday. Those holiday pictures
may bring fond memories to you. You should remember that. The
memories are for you and you alone and not to be shared with the whole
world.
Pictures that say something does not serve as a kind of public record. For
example, on your visit, you would be taking a picture in front of the
pyramid. It is a record of your visit and has no news value.
You could be working for a public relations office and you are assigned to
snap pictures of the CEO of your company at a new processing plant. Such
pictures can be considered as images of public record. It just records where
and when something occurred.
The kind of images that is suited for print would focus on a subject. The
subject or people in the photo are doing a significant act. Its significance
could be inferred from the facial expression of the subject or from the action
carried out by the people in the photo.
The subject is in action
The picture is technically good
The best picture is selected
T
W
N
G
U
1
2
3

Figure 9.5: The front page of New Straits Times on April 10, 2003
An example would be the picture of the front page of New Straits Times on
April 10, 2003 as shown in Figure 9.5. It displays a photo capturing the act
of pulling down the statue of Saddam Hussein, in the heart of Baghdad as
symbolising the downfall of the Iraqi President.
(b) The picture is technically good
The essence of a good picture is one that is sharp, in focus, with a perfect
combination of colour and tone, balance of composition and subject in
action. Essentially, these are the major criteria that a photo editor will look
for when choosing a photograph for print. Taking pictures for publishing is
different from snapping pictures of sites of interest while holidaying at
some tourist destination.
Photojournalists are well aware of the pitfalls of media photography. They
can never ask the subjects to pose so that they may snap a technically good
photograph. That is why the media will use any photographs available and
they are willing to pay for the rights to use technically good photographs.

Good and newsworthy photographs are hard to come by and that is why,
news photographers know that they have only ONE chance to snap a good
image.
Imagine yourself as a photojournalist; you see a commercial jetliner just
about to crash in a school field. Do you think you would have enough time
to make adjustments on your camera so as to make sure that the images
taken are sharp, focused, balanced, etc? You have to snap the images right
there and then. You have no time to think. Everything must be done in a
split second.
(c) The best picture is selected
The best images fit for print will have to be rich in content and impact. The
best picture needs no further explanation. It will tell the story by itself. The
best picture for print may not necessarily win any award but you should
not be surprised if it wins.
The picture of the pulling down of the statue of Saddam Hussien has all the
three elements that have just been discussed. The importance of the scene is
emphasised by the amount of space on the front page allocated to the
photograph.
The affordability of printing colour images adds depth and impact to the
news story. Previously, the process of printing newspapers in full colour
was slow and expensive. The advancement of new printing technology and
fast drying ink has allowed more newspapers to print spot-news images in
colour. Another contributing factor to the increasing use of colour images is
the advent of the digital camera. The digital camera coupled with fast and
reliable communication link-up has enabled photojournalists to transmit
news images around the globe moments after it happens.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Who is the winner for the World press photo 2012? To find out the
result, refer to http://www.worldpressphoto.org/2012-photocontest.

WRITING CUTLINES
Is there a difference between a cutline and a caption? Some books in journalism
treat both as two separate terms while others lump them together as one. In this
module, we shall differentiate cutlines from captions (refer to Figure 9.6 and 9.7).
The Malaysian mass media use the two terms interchangeably.
Figure 9.6: A Cutline
Figure 9.7: A Caption
9.3

What are the criteria for writing a cutline? The Associated Press Managing
EditorsÊ Newsphoto Committee has developed the following criteria to test the
suitability of a good cutline:
ACTIVITY 9.4
fl
Above are two of the pictures taken from the World Press Photo of the
Year 2012 (http://www.worldpressphoto.org/gallery/2012-worldpress-
photo).
Compare them with any of the pictures inside your daily newspaper.
Can you find a picture as good as the above? What makes a good
picture?
Boats rest on a pier at Ishinomaki
port, in Miyagi prefecture, on 15
April, more than a month after a
tsunami devastated large areas of
northeastern Japan. © Lars Lindqvist,
Sweden.
Actress Mellica Mehraban, who was
born in Iran but grew up in
Denmark, played a lead role in the
Iranian spy thriller ‘Fox Hunting’,
which had its first Danish screening
at an Iranian film festival in
Copenhagen in May. © Laerke
Posselt, Copenhagen, Denmark.

In other words, a good cutline completes the thought that a photograph starts
with. It gives context to the images in the picture and explains anything that is
not immediately clear to the reader.
The cutline is always written in the present tense. The use of present tense
renders a sense of immediacy to the readers who are reading it. Time element is
not stated explicitly if a story accompanies a photograph. If the time element is
added, it does not appear with the present tense verb. The time is placed in
another sentence.
Example 1 is an illustration on how to write cutlines for mugshots. In identifying
the individual in the mugshot, you should make sure of the name that goes with
the face. It will be an embarrassment to write an apology the next day because
you have mistakenly identified the person in the picture.
Criteria to test the suitability of a good cutline
1. Is it complete? Is there anything unusual in the picture that is not
explained in the caption (cutline)?
2. Does it identify? Identification is the basic purpose of a caption (cutline).
3. Does it tell when and where the picture was shot?
4. Does it tell what is in the picture and what is in the story?
5. Does it have the names right? This means they are spelled correctly and
in the correct order (left to right assumed).
6. Is it easy to read? The sentence must be short, direct and in the proper
sequence.
7. Is it specific? Does it give information on a specific point of interest in the
picture, or does it merely echo the obvious?
8. Does it have adjectives? Let the reader decide whether the subject is
„middle aged,‰ „glamorous‰, and so on.
9. Does the picture suggest another picture? Going to press without the
other picture is like running a story before getting all the facts.

Example 2 illustrates how to write cutlines for photographs other than mugshots.
For these types of images, you will have to identify the main subjects of the
image starting from left to right. Each individual is identified by name and job
designation.
Example 1:
TAKE NOTE:
Only the first name is used to write cutlines for mugshots
(Example taken from Computimes, New Straits Times, April 17, 2003)
194 TOPIC 9 NEWS AND PHOTOGRAPHS
ACTIVITY 9.5
What ethical issues can arise from a cutline or caption that
manipulates reality?
Example 2:
(Example taken from New Straits Times)

MISLEADING PICTURES: A CASE STUDY
On April 3, 2003 Brian Walski of the Los Angeles Times was fired for his
transgression that was in clear violation of the newspaperÊs policy forbidding
„altering the content of news photographs.‰ The photograph was published on
March 31, 2003.
Below are two original photographs showing a British soldier directing Iraqi
civilians to take cover during an operation on the outskirts of Basra, Iraq. The
photographer, Brian Walski used his computer to fuse elements of the two
photographs, Figure 9.8a and Figure 9.8b that were taken moments apart, to
improve the composition as shown in Figure 9.8c.
Figure 9.8 (a, b and c): The misleading picture by Brian Walski
Source: www.latimes.com/news/custom/showcase/la-ednote_blurb.burb
9.4
SELF-CHECK 9.2
For a news photographer, is it alright to alter a photograph?
Figure 9.8a Figure 9.8b
Figure 9.8c

In his 214 word apology, Walski writes, as published in part on the Poynter
Online webpage:
This was after an extremely long, hot and stressful day but I offer no excuses
here. I deeply regret that I have tarnished the reputation of the Los
Angeles Times, a newspaper with the highest standards of journalism, the
Tribune Company, all the people at the Times and especially the very
talented and extremely dedicated photographers and picture editors and
friends that have made my four and a half years at the Times a true quality
experience.
I have always maintained the highest ethical standards throughout my
career and cannot truly explain my complete breakdown in judgement at
this time. That will only come in the many sleepless nights that are ahead.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
Which picture do you prefer, the one with the cutline or the one
without a cutline? Does the cutline further enhance the picture by
explaining anything that is not immediately clear to the reader?

In this topic, we discussed the various functions of photographs. Photographs
should not be treated as fillers.
A filler is a short news item used to fill up a vacant space when a longer story
comes up short.
If photographs are used wisely and creatively, readers will be attracted to the
news items.
People are known to have bought a newspaper just because of the pictures
that are in it, even though they do not normally read that newspaper.
ACTIVITY 9.6
1. Do you agree with the decision of the editors of the Los Angeles
Times to sack the photographer? Would you do the same thing if
you are the editor of the newspaper? If you say yes, what would
be your reason for doing so? If the answer is no, what is your
reason for defending the photographer?
2. How has digital photography enhanced news reporting?
~~~
TOPIC 10 NEWS AND INFORMATIONAL GRAPHIC.
INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the importance of informational graphics for todayÊs media
industry. In the beginning, the only kind of visual graphics offered by
newspapers were photographs. The publication of photographs was made
possible with the discovery of the technology for etching plates to print the
images. The advent of offset lithography further enhanced the use of
photographs in newspapers.
While photographs are still an important illustrative element for newspapers
today, we are seeing a growing demand for other types of graphics, especially
informational graphics. This type of graphic is made possible with specialised
computer software.
Topic
10
News and
Informational
Graphics

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of informational graphics;
2. Choose the right informational graphics;
3. Describe the various types of informational graphics and the
guidelines for using informational graphics; and
4. Explain how to select the right chart.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

TOPIC 10 NEWS AND INFORMATIONAL GRAPHIC

IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS

Informational graphics is a term used to refer to visually appealing graphics
that fuse together information with charts or graphs or any other suitable graphic
element. The purpose of using an informational graphic is to facilitate
understanding and streamline communication. Below (in Figure 10.1) is an
example of the usage of an Informational graphic in depicting the US and
Coalition bases in the Persian Gulf during the 2003 war in Iraq.
Figure 10.1: Informational graphic depicting the US and Coalition bases in the Persian
Gulf
10.1

Informational graphics are a relatively new phenomenon in Malaysian mass
media. Malaysian newspapers started using informational graphics as part and
parcel of their content in the early 1990s. The trend of using informational
graphics began in America in the 1980s with the start of the newspaper USA
Today. Today, every newspaper the world over has some form of informational
graphics appearing on a daily basis to illustrate a news story. There are times
when an informational graphic appears as a separate news item on its own.
10.1.1 Graphic Editor
The importance of informational graphics in the publication of newspapers can
be seen through the appointment of a special editor to manage the use of such
graphic elements. This editor is designated as the graphic editor. He or she
would have some experience as a journalist but has received further training to
create the various types of graphics using computer software.
The graphic editor is in charge of a specially created department to make
informational graphics for publication. The department is staffed by people who
are visually inclined and do have some background in journalism. They will
need to create informational graphics that are both appealing and informative for
the public to consume.
The graphic editor is aware of the needs of todayÊs mass media readers for
colourful and informational graphics. The surge in demand is related to greater
graphic awareness among readers who are constantly exposed to graphics on
television and the Internet.
Do you know that before graphic design software was introduced in the early
1980s, everything was drawn by hand?
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Check out your favourite Malaysian daily newspaper. Can you find
the usage of informational graphics in the newspaper?

10.1.2 Informational Graphics vs Photographs
Before the entry of informational graphics as part of the daily content of the
Malaysian mass media, photography was the only common graphic element in
the newspaper. Photographs do portray reality but an organisation would not
have enough resources to station their photographers everywhere so that they
will be ready to take pictures of an event when and where it happens.
We know that photographs are good at showing what people are doing. The
snapshot taken shows what somebody is doing at that moment in time. Can a
photograph be used to show a process, for example the development of a human
being from an infant to an adult? This is one of the major weaknesses of
photography. You will not be able to use it to describe a process.
A complicated process such as the offensive strategy of the US-led forces on the
city of Baghdad, during the height of the invasion on Iraq can never be told by
using a photograph. You will not have a large enough photograph to help you
tell the big story. You could use a satellite photograph but you are not able to
SELF-CHECK 10.2
http://weather.cnn.com/, July 10, 2012
The above illustration shows the use of an informational graphic in
depicting the weather forecast. Can a photograph alone represent the above
information?

draw attention of the readers on specific details. A satellite photograph is also
very expensive. The alternative is to use an informational graphic (as shown in
the example of an Informational Graphic 1). All the Malaysian newspapers
printed similar informational graphics about the strategic siege of the US-led
force on the city of Baghdad.
Example of InformationalGraphic 1
A map as an informational graphic is invaluable for showing the
location of places as well as processes.
(Source: New Straits Times, April 10, 2003)

DETERMINING SUITABLE
INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS
1. How do we know which type of informational graphic is suited for our
needs? This is a crucial and difficult question asked by the graphic
editor when he or she assigns the task to the graphic artists. The graphic
editor is usually not the one who will personally create the graphic
design. The graphic editor usually visualises the kind of informational
graphic that is needed. The graphic editor may have to assign one of the
graphic artists to come up with an informational graphic, but the order
would have come from either the news or feature editor. In other
words, the position of the graphic editor is below that of the news or
feature editor.
The example of Informational Graphic 2 below shows a bio box which is a good
example of a properly thought out informational graphic.
10.2

Example of Informational Graphic 2
A Bio box as an alternative form of an informational graphic
(Source: New Straits Times, April 16, 2003)
TOPIC 10 NEWS AND INFORMATIONAL GRAPHIC 205
To help the graphic editor determine the type of informational graphic needed,
the following questions are most useful. It is based on the 5W1H set of questions.
Who If the information is about someone, then a bio box should serve this need
because you can describe the person or persons.
What If you need to show a breakdown of something then you would create a
chart, with or without numbers to show the relationship of the various elements.
Where If the description of the place is an important element of the information,
then a map would serve the purpose.
When If the element of time is an overriding factor, then a timeline graph
should be appropriate.
Why If you have to capture the elements of proportion, then a pie chart should
be used.
How If you need to explain why something happened the way it did, then you
should create an informational graphic that is able to capture the essence of the
whole process.
In other words, there is a variety of informational graphic options available to
choose from and it should not be limited to bar, line and pie charts only. Even
though these various types of charts are the most obvious, it may not necessarily
suit your purpose. The example of Informational Graphic 3 shows a chart that
combines both a timeline and an illustration of the human genetic code.
How to determine the type of informational graphic
needed

Example of Informational Graphic 3
An informational graphic contains elements of timeline and a chart
(Source: New Straits Times,April 15, 2003)
SELF-CHECK 10.3
Give five reasons why informational graphics are important.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Go through your favourite daily newspaper and look out for its
informational graphics. Do the informational graphics enhance
your understanding of the news stories?

10.2.1 Graphic Designers
In coming out with fresh and new ideas for informational graphics, graphic
designers should have a broad perspective and understand that informational
graphics are there to tell a story. It is done visually. If reporters tell their stories
using words, graphic artists are not limited to words alone. They can use and mix
various elements in their designs. While creating their designs, they should not
limit themselves to only bar, line and pie charts. They are allowed to use
photographs if necessary.
While designing the informational graphic, they should be aware that every
graphic element that is used in the design should have a purpose. They must not
use it just because they have the option to do it. It must be relevant. In other
words, do not use a picture of an individual if you are creating a map showing
places of importance.
Different types of graphic elements should be used to tell a different type of
story. Open your favourite daily and look at the types of informational graphics
that are used by the newspaper. Ask yourself this set of questions as shown in
Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2: Questions asked when looking at Informational Graphics

GUIDELINES FOR USING INFORMATIONAL
GRAPHICS
10.3
SELF-CHECK 10.4
BBC.com, April 9, 2003
The above chart shows the cost of SARS to the Asian country. Do you
think that the above informational graphic effectively presents the
information? Why?
* Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

Since colourful informational graphics can brighten up a newspaper, we have the
tendency to use them because they are there. As with photographs, you ought to
use them properly so that they will be effective in communicating your message.
Below are ten guidelines for using informational graphics in a publication.
SELECTING THE RIGHT CHART
The most obvious type of mistake that a young designer would make is to
assume that all charts can be used for all purposes. Each type of chart is suitable
for certain types of information only. Below are three types of charts that are
commonly used by the mass media in informational graphics. The three types of
charts are shown in Figure 10.3.
10.4
(Siebert and Cropper, 1993: 35)

Figure 10.3: The three types of charts
10.4.1 Pie Chart
Pie chart gets its name because it looks like slices of pie. It is useful if you need to
show relationships. Below are some of the guidelines in creating the pie chart:
(a) Limit to six values
While it is useful, you should not overload them with too many values; it
should be limited to six values. If you have more than six values, it is better
to create a category for „others‰ to lump all smaller values.
Care should be taken if you have to create an „others‰ category. It should
not be more than 10 percent. An „other‰ category that is more than 10
percent should be extracted and you could show the values in another pie
chart.
(b) Make the chart more attractive
To make the pie chart more attractive, you could have it three-dimensional,
as shown in the example below. You ought to be careful when using a threedimensional
pie chart because it is difficult to read especially if it is loaded
with too many values.
(c) Do not use pie charts to show variation
Even though pie charts are eye-catching especially in three-dimension, you
ought to be aware that they can never be used to show variations over time.
You can never use them to show negative values. Precision is another
weakness.
Figure 10.4 shows an example of a pie chart.

Figure 10.4: An example of a pie chart
Source: New Straits Times, April 14, 2003
10.4.2 Bar Charts
The bar chart is the most flexible type of charts. You can draw it horizontally or
vertically and you can even add line charts with it. The bar chart is best for
showing variations over time. With the ease of creating a three-dimensional bar
chart that comes with most spreadsheet software, you can experiment in different
ways.
Bar charts are suitable for making a bold statement. Variations can be shown,
whether daily, weekly or monthly. You could also use two sets of data to
compare variations over the years. An example of the bar chart can be seen in
Figure 10.5 below.

Figure 10.5: An example of a bar chart comparing variations over the years
Source: The Star, April 15, 2003
10.4.3 Line Charts
Another type of chart that is commonly used in economic reporting is the line
chart. As with the bar chart, you can also show variations in trends over longer
periods of time with a line chart. With the latest computer software, creating
multiple line charts is so easy and you can compare variations over time.
Figure 10.6: Line charts showing the downward trends of CI

Graphic designers can unintentionally distort information appearing in a chart.
In the above example, we have three different line charts that show the
downward trends of the Composite Index (CI) of the Kuala Lumpur Stock
Exchange (KLSE) as of April 11, 2003.
Of the three charts (as in Figure 10.6), chart „C‰ indicates a drastic drop of the
Composite Index (CI). Thus, if your purpose is to show a drastic drop of the CI,
you might only use chart „C‰ to indicate the steep drop of the index.
The downward movement trend of the CI in the long term is actually moderate if
we were to look at chart „A.‰ Chart „B‰ indicates a slight drop in the CI value.
PROCEDURES FOR CREATING
INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS
You will find that the task of creating informational graphics is not as easy as it
looks. Figure 10.7 below shows four procedures for creating informational
graphics.
Figure 10.7: The four procedures for creating informational graphics
10.5
SELF-CHECK 10.6
When would you use a pie chart in an informational graphic?

(a) Begin with an idea
You would have to begin with an idea. What is it that you would want to
inform readers in your informational graphic? This is the first and basic
question that you should ask yourself even before you start on your
informational graphic. Since you are trying to inform, you should
emphasise the interest of your readers or audiences at all times.
Where do you start to get ideas for informational graphics? You should
begin by looking at informational graphics that are created by other people.
This is easily done because you can find one type of informational graphic
being published in your local daily. It would be good if you were to keep a
file on the selected informational graphic that catches your attention. In all
probability, you would find that the same informational graphic is liked by
other people too.
(b) Search for Information
Getting ideas for your informational graphic is a little bit harder. You
would have to search for information that can be rendered graphically.
Without the information, you do not have anything to work on. The
information can be in the form of the statistics, process, maps or trends that
should be of interest to your readers or audiences.
Where would you find such information? There are numerous avenues for
you to search for such information. Information can be found in an
almanac, a company annual report, a government department report, or
even the World Wide Web.
Wherever you look for the information, you should be aware that the
interests of your readers or audiences are much localised. After gathering
the needed information, you should keep them in a file and take note of the
source of information. Sometimes, you would need to identify the source of
information in your informational graphic. This is especially true, if you are
going to create, for example, an informational graphic about the growth of
passenger car sales over the years. The source of your data would definitely
lend credibility to your informational graphic.
(c) Find a suitable computer software
The next step in creating informational graphics would be to find suitable
computer software to work with. You should not buy all the various types
of software available. It is a waste of time and effort. Buy only one type of
software that will help you to create informational graphics with ease. You
should learn how to use the software extensively. The problem with most

people is that they have only rudimentary knowledge of a particular
software.
(d) Create your own informational graphics
After familiarising yourself with the software, you are ready to create your
own informational graphics. You should strive to create graphics that are
clear and informative. Since there are many different graphic forms to
choose from, you should understand each of their strengths and
weaknesses. You should bear in mind the type of application that will be
publishing the informational graphics once they are ready.
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Do you know where you can find information on statistics,
processes, maps or trends that can be used to generate ideas for
your informational graphics?
2. Do you know that the Excel application can be used to generate
bar, pie and line charts? Refer to http://lacher.com/
toc/tutchart.htm for the tutorial on how to create a chart using
Excel spreadsheets.

Mass media audiences hunger for information that is easy to digest in the
least amount of time.
They do not have a lot of time to read the various items in a newspaper.
Under such circumstances, readers and viewers alike take informational
graphics as an important supplement to their daily news diet.
In this topic we have covered how informational graphics have become an
important tool for imparting vital information to the public in the most
creative and attractive way.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
The table indicates the amount of time a student spends on
different activities in a day. Using the figures in the table below you
are required to create a suitable chart. You would need to use a
spreadsheet software to create the appropriate chart. Remember
to use the right chart to illustrate the studentsÊ use of time for the
various activities.
Activity Time
Sleep 8 hours
Lectures 5 hours
Reading 4 hours
Television 2 hours
Time off 1.5 hours
Eating 1 hour
Library 1 hour
Internet surfing 1 hour
Friends 0.5 hours
~~~

TOPIC 11 ETHICAL ISSUES FOR MEDIA PRACTITIONERS
INTRODUCTION

Media practitioners are confronted with various ethical issues in the course of
their everyday duty. Dealing with some of these ethical issues can sometimes be
straightforward. Others can be difficult to solve.
In this topic, we will discuss four major ethical issues that media practitioners
normally have to deal with.
ETHICAL ISSUES
Brooks et al. (1980) categorises the various ethical issues confronted by media
practitioners into four major categories. They can be seen in Figure 11.1 below.
11.1
Topic
11
Ethical Issues
for Media
Practitioners

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the four ethical issues confronting journalists; and
2. Discuss the need for a media council.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
SELF-CHECK 11.1
Do you think that it is unethical for a journalist to accept a free gift of
any kind? Why?

Freebies
Conflict of interest
Withholding information
Deceit
Figure 11.1: The four major categories of ethical issues
11.1.1 Freebies
Freebie is another name for a free gift. It is also called payola. It is a common
sight to see reporters being offered gifts or hand-outs on their routine
assignments. Would it be an ethical violation if media practitioners were to
accept gifts? Does the Malaysian Canon of Journalism prohibit media
practitioners from receiving any types of gifts? Let us consider the hypothetical
cases below.
You are attending a function organised by a handphone manufacturer to
publicise its latest product. After the press conference, the host offers you
some refreshments. Is it considered a gift, if the host offers you a cup of tea
and some cakes to go with it? If you are inclined to say that some
refreshments will do no harm, then you are not alone. After all, you could
argue that a cup of tea and some cakes will not cost a fortune. I would agree
too.
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You could also argue that the best time to build rapport between you and the
host is while having refreshments. Thus, the cup of tea or cakes is immaterial
because you are looking at forging new ties. That is well and good, and your
superior will definitely want you to create a friendly and courteous rapport
with your sources of news.
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As you make your way out of the presentation room, your host surprises you
with a free gift. Guess what? The gift is a brand new handphone, the same
product that was launched. The price tag of the handphone is RM1,200. Are
you going to accept the gift graciously or refuse it outright saying that it is
against your ethical principles?
Our culture does not take lightly people who refuse to accept a gift. You could
be accused of being rude to the host. Would it be alright for you to take the
gift so as not to hurt the hostÊs pride?
Now, what are you going to do?
Before answering, I would like to ask you this question: Why would a
handphone manufacturer offer you such an expensive gift? The public
relations officer of the handphone manufacturer could always say that it
would allow you to test the product personally. After testing the product, the
officer says that you can keep it as a token of appreciation from the
manufacturer. The public relations officer could also say: „Not to worry,
everybody else takes it. You wonÊt be the first to take it.‰
What the officer has neglected to tell you is that if you turn down the offer, you
would be the first one to have refused and have stuck to your principle.
I have some more questions. Would you have been inclined to write the
news item about the unveiling of the new handphone before being given the
gift? Or are you more inclined to write the news item, now that you are given
such an expensive gift? What would you do with the gift? Are you going to
keep it and use it? After all, they did say it is yours to keep. If you have
more questions than answers, you are definitely in a quagmire! You have
just identified an ethical problem. How are you going to decide?
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Another type of gift is getting a copy of the latest published book. You are getting
the free copy because you have a weekly column on book reviews. You would
read it and make comments about it. As a book reviewer, you would most
definitely compare the content of the book with other books of the same type.
It is question time again. Would you write an honest review if you were to buy
the book? Or will it be different since you are getting it for free? What would you
do with the book after reviewing it? Are you going to keep it and build a whole
new library at your home? Are you going to send it to the media library after
reviewing it? Or are you going to donate it to a local public library?
We have discussed in detail, the process of making ethical decisions in the
previous chapter. I would like to stress that an ethical problem is not the same as
breaking the law. Nobody is going to judge and sentence you to jail or fine or
both. The only person that is going to know what has happened is YOU. For
example, in the first two hypothetical cases, if you did not tell your officemates
about the new handphone given to you by the manufacturer, how else are they
going to know?
11.1.2 Conflict of Interest
Conflict of interest is more difficult to deal with than receiving payola. Payola
involves another party giving you something. Conflict of interest involves you
personally. The most common form of conflict of interest is membership in a
SELF-CHECK 11.2
„Reporters should not endorse a political cause, but the rest of us can‰.
http:/www.westga.edu/~byates/conflicts.htm
What do you think of the above statement?

political party. Let us consider a few conflicting situations that a journalist may
face:
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Let us suppose that you are working with a mainstream newspaper. You
are given an assignment to do a news item about the party with which
you are an active member. Can you still maintain objectivity? Being
objective is necessary because a mainstream newspaper should strive for
the benefits of its readers.
What if you are working for a newspaper that is an organ of a political
party, will there be any conflict of interest? There should not be because
as a worker of the political party, you are required to work for the
benefit of the party. You would use your journalistic skills for the
betterment of the political party.
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Another common form of conflict is being appointed President of your
sonÊs or daughterÊs Parent Teacher Association. You are nominated and
later voted as the President because they know you are working with a
media organisation. You would say there should not be any conflict with
that. The problem starts when the Parent Teacher Association wants to
start a campaign to collect funds for the school expansion programme.
You are then obliged to contact various private organisations to solicit
funds for the campaign. What are you going to do? Are you going to solicit
funds from the various private corporations? Or are you going to step down
from the presidency?

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Conflict of interest is most difficult when you are offered some form of
discount even if you do not ask for it. For example, as a media
practitioner, you check into a hotel on an out of town private trip. You
acknowledge in the check-in form that you are a journalist with one of the
premier media organisations. The clerk on seeing this informs the hotel
manager. The manager offers you a special attractive rate for your stay.
What are you going to do? Are you going to accept the offer? After all
you did not ask for it. Is that so? You would know that by stating your
profession and media organisation in the check-in form, you would be
given certain privileges that are not given to anybody else. Will you stop
writing your profession and the name of the organisation that you are
working with the next time you check into a hotel?
It will help you to deal with issues related to conflict of interest if you remain
professional in the course of your job. For example, you should assume your
position as a journalist only if it requires you to do so and you should never take
advantage of your position when it comes to personal matters. As stated earlier,
conflict of interest is more difficult to handle, and if you do not treat it wisely, it
can ruin you personally and professionally.
ACTIVITY 11.1
1. For a detailed comparative analysis of the content of 104
journalistic codes of ethics from around the world, you should surf
the following website:
http://www.presswise.org.uk/ethics.htm
It compares the various journalistic codes of ethics based on
thirty ethical topics ranging from journalistic accuracy to women.
2. Which countries support the right to freedom of speech or
freedom of expression for the press?

11.1.3 Withholding Information
Sometimes journalists get hold of a crucial piece of information but cannot find
the time to verify its authenticity. It is best under such circumstances to withhold
writing the news until it can be verified with an independent source. It is more
prudent to check the legitimacy of any vital information before dispersing it to
the general public.
Decisions have to be made and quickly. Sometimes what is being decided is not
the best solution. Reporters will often have to withhold certain facts if there is not
enough space or time to write everything. You have to be selective. Being
selective is not a problem but it becomes a problem when you choose to highlight
only the positive points and withhold the negative points. Let us consider some
situations where withholding information is an issue of concern.
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You could be writing about a conflict between two opposing factions, thus
withholding information occurs when you choose to portray one group in a
positive light. You refrain from publishing the opposing groupÊs positive
points intentionally. What ever reason you may have for doing this, you
are actually doing an injustice to one of the parties.
By taking sides in a conflict, you have stopped being objective. You have
become an active participant rather than a neutral observer. You should have
remained impartial to both sides. Your main function as a journalist is to
report both sides of a conflict. You should not judge who is right and who
is wrong. The party that will be the judge is not the conflicting parties but
your newspaperÊs readers and your television channelÊs audience. They
should be the real judge. You should present every newsworthy fact.

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Sometimes you are requested by your source not to use a piece of
information. This usually occurs when you are on a battle front covering a
major offensive by a crack invading army team. The armyÊs field
commander allows you to follow them to the battle front on the condition
that all stories can only be transmitted after the army has approved it.
The sad thing about a war is that the truth always suffers. You are in a tight
bind because you cannot do as you please. You are left with little choice if
you are assigned to cover a war. You would find it very difficult to go to
the front line if you did not get the help of the army.
The main problem with asking for military assistance is you would
inadvertently become part of the army propaganda machine. You would be
compelled to agree to every demand of the military, thus losing your sense
of impartiality. The army would decide for you on a lot of things because
they do not want you to expose their weakness.
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Withholding information also occurs when you are caught in a legal bind.
For example, you have just got hold of an official secret document but you
cannot disclose it because it is against the law. What would you do? I
would presume that you would report the matter to the authorities and
surrender the document to them.
Sometimes it is necessary to withhold information from the public. It is an
accepted norm that it is not appropriate to disclose the identities of victims of
sex-related crimes. When the victim is a minor, disclosing her identity is an
offence under the law. Care should be taken at all times when handling stories
that involve minors or persons of young age.

11.1.4 Deceit
This category lumps together all types of dubious methods employed to gather
information for a news item. Some of the common dubious methods employed
by journalists while gathering news are clandestine recordings, eavesdropping
and the use of hidden cameras.
Recording, whether in audio or visual forms, without the consent of the
informants is frowned upon by the journalism fraternity.
However, certain forms of clandestine recording are sometimes necessary to
gather evidence of criminal wrongdoings. We may not be able to prove any
unlawful activities if there is no audio and video footage of the actual bad deeds
done. Surely we cannot ask the crooks to admit their own wrongdoings, can we?
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Sometimes you would find that it is tough to obtain information for a news
story. For example, you are assigned to obtain information to do a news report
on a gang fight that happened in a school. If you show up in school and inform
the school head that you are a reporter on assignment to gather information
about the gang fight, what is the probability of you getting the story?
The answer is an outright NO. The head will inform you that the school does not
give statements to the press. The Education MinistryÊs directive forbids school
heads to do so. Thus, the next time you are in this predicament, you decide to
conceal your true identity. You inform the head of a school that you are a concerned
parent who would like to know about the gang fight that has happened.
The head of school, thinking it is an honest question coming from a concerned
parent, answers all your questions. Is this going to be your approach if you
have been assigned to get the facts of the story? Will you use the information
that you have just obtained even though you had to succumb to deceit? Is
deceit necessary in the first place?
I would say NO. This is because the head of school is not the only source of
information about the gang fight. You could snoop around and gather the
facts from students who witnessed the gang fight. With the gathered
information, you could have it verified either by contacting the district police
station or the MinistryÊs public relation officer. These alternative sources of
information will only be too glad to provide you with the essential details.

The Malaysian Canon of Journalism forbids the use of deceit in any form to
gather information. You would be required to be honest while collecting
information about a news story. Who will know that you had used trickery to
obtain the story? Well, your source of information will know. He or she could
lodge a complaint with your media bosses.
WHO WATCHES THE WATCHDOG?
11.2
ACTIVITY 11.2

Below is the article on how the Hollywood couple Catherine Zeta
Jones and Michael Douglas won a partial victory in their fight
against Hello! magazine some years ago over the use of
unauthorised photos of their wedding.
Hollywood couple Catherine Zeta Jones and Michael Douglas
have won a partial victory in their fight against Hello! magazine
over the use of unauthorised photos of their wedding.
A High Court judge said the coupleÊs commercial confidence
was breached when Hello! infringed on the coupleÊs exclusive
£1m deal with rival OK!
But he rejected their claim that the photos intruded on their
privacy. Damages will be awarded to the couple
BBC News, April, 2003
Some of the common methods employed by journalists while
gathering news are clandestine recordings, eavesdropping and the
use of hidden cameras. By practising the above methods, donÊt you
think that journalists run the risk of being sued like the one in the
article? That being the case, why would they still do it? Should they
continue? As an audience, would you still want to view and listen
to the news obtained through these methods?
SELF-CHECK 11.3
If a person has been victimised by the media, where can he or
she go to file a complaint?

The mass media is quick to respond if someone or an organisation is victimised
by a government department or agency. This is all well and good. The problem
arises when the watchdog does something wrong; who will see to it that it toes
the line. In other words, who watches the watchdog?
If a person has been victimised by the media, where can he or she go to file a
complaint? The mass media in Malaysia has yet to set up its own Media Council
as an adjudicating body for people who have been victimised by the mass media
to obtain restitution. The move to set up a Media Council has been set in motion
in Malaysia for more than a decade now but to date, nothing has come out of it.
The proposed media council is the next logical step after the launching of a
national code of ethics. Since it has been more than a decade since the Malaysian
Canon of Journalism was announced, it is high time for the setting up of the
media council.
The International Press Council (IPC) homepage lists 49 countries from around
the world that have set up their own press or media councils. The objective of
IPC is to exchange views and information of mutual importance. The IPC
homepage highlights the importance of having an independent and free press
council. It reads as below:
The homepage of the International Press Council is at:
http:/www.presscouncils.org. From the website, search for a document titled
Media Ethics Bibliography.
11.2.1 The Indonesian Press Council
A free and independent press council is nothing new in this region. In fact,
Indonesia has its own press council to handle complaints about its mass media.
The Indonesian Press Council, set up on September 23, 1999 is working towards
an „open, democratic and reforming‰ Indonesian mass media.
An independent press council is responsible for the self-regulation of the
news media in any given area, free from government interference or judicial
supervision. Self-regulation ensures that freedom of the press is maintained
while helping to raise standards and give redress to members of the public
who have a grievance against a newspaper, magazine, broadcast station or
newspaper web outlet.

228
The preamble of a free and independent Indonesian Press Council states its effort
is geared to promote press freedom and to maintain high ethical standards of the
Indonesian mass media. The membership of the Indonesian Press Council
consists of nine representatives from the following (see Figure 11.2).
Three journalists (representatives from the various
organisations for journalists)
Four management representatives (representatives
from the media organisations)
Two public figures (members of the public that are
selected by the journalistsÊ organisations and media
organisations)
Figure 11.2: The nine member Indonesian Press Council
ACTIVITY 11.3
1. Surf the Internet for The Indonesian Press Council at the
following link:
www.dewanpers.org
2. Do you think that by not having our own independent press
council, MalaysiaÊs press are lagging behind in efforts to
promote press freedom and maintain high ethical media
standards?

The setting up of the Indonesian Press Council is provided for by the Indonesian
Code of Ethics. Below is the full text of IndonesiaÊs Code of Ethics.
IndonesiaÊs Alliance of Independent Journalists
Code of Ethics
1. A journalist respects the right of society to obtain correct information.
2. A journalist always defends the principles of free and balanced coverage,
criticism and comments.
3. A journalist gives a place to groups who do not have the strength or opportunity
to voice their aspirations.
4. A journalist only reports those facts and opinions that have a clear source.
5. A journalist does not hide important information that must be known by society.
6. A journalist obtains news, photographs and documents in an ethical manner.
7. A journalist respects the right for a source to give background information, off
the record and embargo.
8. A journalist immediately corrects any news they know to be inaccurate.
9. A journalist maintains the secrecy of the source of confidential information,
identity of victims of sexual abuse and underage criminal offenders.
10. A journalist avoids hatred, prejudice, derogatory attitudes and discrimination in
the areas of: ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, language, religion,
political views, physical disabilities/illness, mental disabilities/illness or other
matters of social background.
11. A journalist respects the privacy of the individual, except when this is
detrimental to society.
12. A journalist does not present news, which graphically portrays indecency,
cruelty, physical or sexual violence.
13. A journalist does not use his or her position or the information he or she
possesses to pursue personal gain.
14. A journalist is forbidden to receive bribes. Notation: The bribery is all forms of
presents and gifts, such as money, goods and/or other facilities, which
influence journalists in their jobs.
15. A journalist is not permitted to plagiarise.
16. A journalist avoids slander and slighting reputations.
17. A journalist avoids intervention from other parties, which seek to obstruct the
application of the above principles.
18. Cases related to the Code of Ethics will be handled by the Council for the
Code of Ethics.

11.2.2 Media Council in Malaysia
Do we need a media council to be set up in Malaysia? There are people who are
for and against the idea. Those who support the idea believe that a media council
that is distinguished and credible will instil a sense of responsibility among
members of the journalism fraternity.
The setting up of a media council should be viewed positively as an alternative to
legal action. Sometimes a distressed party may not want to be compensated
financially and what they want is to restore their good name. This is where a fair
and independent press council becomes necessary. If it is financial restitution
they are looking for, then the courtroom is the proper avenue to pursue it. The
media council does not award financial restitution. The decision of the media
council must be binding on the entire media fraternity. If it is not going to be
adhered too, then the purpose of setting up the media council is defeated.
Those who are against the idea of setting up a press council, think it will be yet
another form of government intervention. This is a wrong perception of the role
and contribution that a fair and independent media council would be able to
offer to society. The task of setting up a media council should be left to the media
practitioners to decide. Two major groups who should decide can be seen in
Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3: The two major groups who can set up the media council
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SELF-CHECK 11.4
Do we need a media council to be set up in Malaysia? Why? What
would be the pros and cons of setting up a media council?

Two major forms of inputs from media organisations are crucial towards the
setting up of the proposed media council. The media organisations will be
needed to cover any expenses incurred by the proposed media council and they
will also be called upon to execute any decision of the council.
The success of the media council will be guaranteed if every media organisation
is committed to the idea. Without total commitment from all the media
organisations, it will be difficult to enforce the decisions of the media council.
Both mainstream and alternative media organisations must be able to sit down
together to trash out any inconsistency that might surface.
While waiting for the efforts to set up a media council to materialise, media
organisations can handle complaints differently. They could appoint their own
ombudsman (one that investigates reported complaints, reports findings, and
helps to achieve equitable settlements). As a member of a media organisation, the
ombudsman can act as an intermediary between the media and the public. The
only problem is the question of who is going to cover the cost of having an
ombudsman in a media organisation. Since the job as an ombudsman is rather
seasonal, it would be wise to delegate the job to the editorial manager.
The ombudsman will have to ensure that every complaint is filed properly and
action taken to resolve it. The ombudsman will have to see to it that every
complaint is acted upon and that the complainant is informed of the steps taken
to rectify the problem. Having an ombudsman working within the media
organisation is good because he or she will be able to give a monthly status
report to the management of the media organisation. This report will indicate
whether the media organisation is doing its job right.

We have discussed the various ethical issues confronting journalists.
Some of these ethical issues are discussed openly but seldom do we see any
form of action being taken against a journalist who violates the ethical
principles.
Conformity to the ethical principles should not be taken lightly.




Christians, C. G., Rotzoll, K. B., & Fackler, M. (1983). Media Ethics: Cases and
Moral Reasoning. New York: Longman.
Goodwin, H. E. (1987). Groping for Ethics in Journalism. Second Edition. Ames,
Iowa: Iowa State University Press.

The ends.