1 ABCT2103 TOPIC 3 TECHNOLOGY OF NETWORKS.
3. Virtuality and globalisation are two terms that
emerged from the development of networks technology. Explain both terms and
their relationship.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the important concepts in technology
of networks;
2. Define the function of technology of networks;
and
3. Explain the relationship between technology of
networks and its impact.
X INTRODUCTION
Networks and networking are always associated
with new media technologies.
And when we talk about networks, we always refer
to computer networks, especially the Internet. In its simplest meaning,
networking refers to the capacity to carry large amounts of data to a series of
interconnected points. The network could take a physical form, such as
broadband cable and ISDN (Integrated Switched Digital Network). Besides that,
digitised information can be carried through other means, such as satellite or
wireless telephony.
Network technology is now widely used in our
life. With this technology, we live in an interconnected relationship with each
other. For Manuel Castells (1996), this creates the emergence of a network
society. According to him, "Networks constitute the new social morphology of
our societies and the diffusion of networking logic substantially modifies the
operation of outcomes in processes of production, experience, power, and culture"
(Castell, 1996: 469).
These are among the focuses in this topic. We
will discuss the important elements and types of network technologies to have
an in-depth understanding of this topic. We will also explore the use of these
technologies and its function to the users.
ACTIVITY 3.1
The development of networks makes our life
dependent on this technology. Almost every organisation in this world has
become completely dependent on networks of telephony and computers. And because
of this, Jan van Djik (2006) said, "we live in a connected world." Do you agree
with this statement? State your reasons and the appropriate examples.
INTERACTIVITY
In general, interactivity is always used in the
field of computer sciences, industrial design, and communication. It is a
critical concept in computer-mediated communication, including new media or
digital media. With networks of technology, interactivity is easily done
without geographical boundaries and time limits.
In new media, interactivity is seen
as a key association that basically sets apart the "old" and "new" media. Old
media could only offer a sit-back type of interaction, whereas new media is
much more engaging to their audiences. It provides a more involving experience
that leads to greater user learning.
"Interactivity" is a term that emerged from the interactive feature
which was derived from a two-part word. The first part "inter" means "between",
implying a two-way exchange, a dialogue. The second part of the word is
"active", which means doing something, being involved or engaged. Therefore,
according to Miller (2008), the whole word indicates an active relationship
between two entities. When used in the context of narrative contents, it
indicates a relationship where both entities, audiences and materials, are
responsive to each other. This means that you, as the audience, have the
ability to manipulate, explore or influence the content and the content can
respond. Or, the content demands something from you, and you respond.
3.1.1 The Use of Interactivity
Interactivity is currently associated with
advances in computer technologies and new media. In actual fact, interactivity
was around long before the computer and has been used in various fields. LetÊs
explore this in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Interactivity in various fields.
Theory of learning and cognition
|
Involving exploration leading to new
experiences and understanding which encourages interactivity.
|
Art and media
|
The attempt to include the audience and allow
them to
have an impact on art requires an understanding
of the
audience.
|
Games and entertainment
industry
|
Interactivity is seen as a critical part in
building immersive
defence modelling environment and simulation.
|
Telecommunication
|
Interactivity is a two-way communication
between source and
receiver or more broadly, multidirectional
communication
between any number of sources and receivers.
|
Education and training
|
Interactivity has positive influence in
learning and
satisfaction. Some research has shown that
students with
interactive activities in all parts of the
lesson remembered
significantly more.
|
Areas Uses
Theory of learning and cognition
Art and media The attempt to include the audience
and allow them to
Games and entertainment
industry
Telecommunication Interactivity is a two-way
communication between source and Education and training Interactivity has
positive influence in learning and There are three types of interactivity:
human-to-human, human-to-computer, and human-to-content. The first type comes
from an interpersonal communication perspective and focuses on parties engaged
in the communication and the dynamics of information exchanges. The
human-to-computer interactivity focuses on userÊs reactions to the technical
aspects of a medium. The third most closely resembles the consumersÊ reactions
to advertising.
Interactivity features in media had been
developed since thte 1950s. Back then, there were efforts to develop truly
interactive television but it failed due to technical reasons and high
expenses. Since then, interactivity has been relentlessly pursued. It has
become one of the cornerstones of the new media. Now, many in the television
industry have presented interactive TV models. The essential interaction is
defined as the ability to select from a menu of choices or to choose movies on
demand. In the earliest moment of electronic publishing industry, interactivity
is really just another word for the user, in which a user can search and browse
through electronic databases. With the convergence of telecommunication,
television, and the computer, interactivity is seen by everyone in the
information superhighway to be both a source and receiver.
Interactivity has been a characteristic in
electronic games, where the choice is made by the individual player, combined
with their skill levels in playing the game. The most compelling scenario for
interactivity is the development of the Internet and World Wide Web where
individuals can create their messages, publish their own content, or engage in
online transactions. And the concept of interactivity has a wider use in the 21th century
and provides the model for a whole series of specific elaborations, innovations
and investment across a range of media industries and institutions.
3.1.2 What is Interactivity?
In Topic 1, we discussed the characteristics of
new media. One of the important characteristics is interactivity.
Interactivity can be defined generally as a sequence of
action and reaction. It refers to the users’ ability to directly intervene and
change the images and texts that they access. So, the audience for new media
becomes a “user” rather than a “viewer” or “reader” of media products.
Besides the definition above, there are other
definitions of interactivity as stated in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: The various definitions of interactivity
Source
|
Definition
|
Rafaeli (1996)
|
The extent to which communication reflects back
on itself, feed on, and responds to the past.
|
Ha and James (1998)
|
Interactivity should be defined in terms of
extent to which the communicator and the audience respond to, or are willing
to facilitate each other’s communication need.
|
Schumann, Artis, and Rivera (2001)
|
Ultimately it is a consumer’s choice to
interact, thus interactivity is a characteristic of the consumer, and not a
characteristic of the medium.
|
Wood and Smith (2005)
|
The quality of telepresence that measures a
person’s ability to manipulate the content of the medium.
|
Flew (2004)
|
Those that gave users a degree of choice in the
information system, both in terms of choice of access to information sources
and control over the outcome of using that system and making those choices.
|
Based on those definitions, we can refer to
interactivity as a form of communication and control. Jan van Djik (2006)
provided a broad definition by defining interactivity in terms of operational
tasks. His definition is also valid for face-to-face communication. For van
Djik, interactivity can be defined at four accumulative levels, as follows:
1. Establishing two-sided or multilateral
communication.
This refers to space dimension which all digital
media offer to a certain extent. But the downloaded link or the supply side of
websites, interactive television, and computer programmes are of a wider
dimension.
2. Degree of synchronicity
This refers to an uninterrupted sequence of
action and reaction which improves the quality of interaction.
3. Extent of control exercised by the interacting
parties This behavioural dimension is referred to as the ability of the sender
and the receiver to switch roles at any moment. It is also about the control
over the events in the process of interaction. At this level, interactivity
means that the user is able to intervene the programme and to make a difference
at the other side.
4. Acting and reacting with an understanding of
meanings and contexts by all interactors involved.
This refers to a mental dimension which is
necessary for full interactivity that is always done at the level of
interactivity which is reserved for mediated and face-to-face interaction.
In understanding new media, interactivity is a
central concept, but different media forms have different degrees of
interactivity. A sense of interactivity refers to these three factors:
1. Speed - how quickly a user can manipulate the
environment;
2. Range - how much a user manipulates the
environment; and
3. Mapping - how the action of users are related
to reactions in the virtual environment.
The implementation of this characteristic
involves two main keys:
1. Interactive system must work.
This means putting the software, hardware and
data in a practical and reliable configuration.
2. How the usage interacts with the information
system.
What kind of interface exists between the user
and the databases? At the mechanical level, interface may be a keyboard and a
screen, or at the design level, the interface determines the screen design and
its functionality.
When discussing this concept, we also have to
talk about interconnectivity and interoperability, two important elements to
make the true interactivity arise (Flew 2004). Interconnectivity is the
capacity to easily connect interactions across different networks, while
interoperability refers to the capacity to access all available forms of
information and media content using different operation
With interactivity, user can be engaged in other
modes such as "playing", "experimenting", and "exploring" under the
interaction. Users can be more active in their media usage either through
hypertextual navigation, immersive navigation, registrational interactivity, or
interactive communication.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Interactivity has been offered in many forms of
computer-mediated communication.
1. Can you give a few examples?
2. Discuss how interactivity has been offered in
it.
3. How important is interactivity in
communication? State your reasons.
TELEPHONY, THE INTERNET, COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.
The development of technology·especially with
network and computer-based technology·changed our communication forms. It began
with the revolution in micro-electronics, which acts as a foundation to
telecommunication, data communication, and mass communication. This is the
basis for the improvement of communication systems and capacities of speed,
storage, accuracy, and complexity in the communication media such as telephony
devices and the Internet.
3.2.1 Telephony
The backbone of telecommunication is telephony or
telephone network which has surpassed and largely incorporated the old
telegraph and telex networks.
When we say telephony, it refers to the
technology associated with the electronic transmission of voice, fax, or other
information between distant parties using systems historically associated with
the telephone - a handheld device containing both a speaker or transmitter and
a receiver.
The development began with fixed telephony. In
this era, copper wires were used to reach users. This telephone equipment was
fixed to a particular place.
Since the 1980s, mobile telephony gradually
replaced fixed telephony. It started with cordless telephones and car
telephones. After that, the technology evolved to mobile air telephones. It was
used for long-distance communication in navigation and aviation and in radio
transmissions.
Since the 1990s, we have seen digital mobiles
which offer better quality and security against eavesdropping. The first
generation comprises a Global System for Mobile communication (GSM). This
mobile telephony was accompanied by GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) since
the year 2000. The second generation telephony is five times as fast as GSM. It
is widely used for sending and receiving data, including MMS (Multi Media
Messaging). The third generation digital mobile telephony offers broadband
communication. With this new technology, we can get good quality streaming
video and multimedia Internet applications either through the mobile phone or
laptop.
Now, telephone networks have not just enabled the
transmission of voice, pictures and videos on mobile telephones, but we can
also have videophones or audio conferencing with fixed telephones. The
telephone is not only connected to the computer but also to audiovisual media.
A connected telephone to a computer is needed to enable the transmission of
more data. With this convergence, the computer is able to assist the telephone
with certain programmes that automatically call back, put conversations and data
to another telephone or monitor.
Furthermore, the combination of Internet and
telephony devices gives us more variety in our communication tools. Internet
telephony was first developed to provide interactive voice communication over
the existing Internet Protocol.
Then, we have various terms referring to this
technology such as packet telephony, Intranet telephony, voice over Internet
Protocol, voice over the network, and voice conferencing
3.2.2 The
Internet
The Internet began its early formulation in 1969
at the Defense Department of the United States. The project was called Advanced
Research Projects Agency Networks (ARPAnet) which is a vast interconnection of
computer networks around the world. It is a network of networks that use a common
set of technical protocol called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or
Internet Protocol (IP) in routing data across those networks. The Internet was
officially born in 1983 when ARPAnet was divided into military and civilian
components. The civilian component developed into the Internet.
Based on Flew (2004), the Internet refers to both
a technical infrastructure of computers and other digital devices permanently
connected through high-speed telecommunication networks. It is also a tool to
all forms of content, communication, and information sharing that flow through
these networks. It links people and information through computers and other
digital media technologies and it allows both interpersonal communication and
information retrieval. Internet usage involves person-to-person communication,
group communication, and global publishing and information provision through
e-mail, news groups, chat rooms, mailing lists, and the World Wide Web.
The Internet began as the first national
packet-switched computer network. It replaced the traditional telecommunication
networking technology of circuit-switching which is a very expensive method of
communication. Packet-switching overcomes the limitation of the telephone
system and established the principle of decentralised network with no single
point from which control can be exercised. It is a cheap, efficient, and fast
method of transmission.
The development of the Internet also created a
common set of networking protocols which enabled researchers in the various
local area networks (LANs) to communicate with each other. They communicate
through the interconnection of those LANs into a wide area network (WAN). When
Internet usage spread outside the US government in the 1980s, it allowed many
people worldwide to use this technology.
The World Wide Web development in the 1990s
changed the communication capabilities of the Internet and makes the Internet
what it is today. With its main features such as the display of colourful
pictures, multimedia capability and hypertext, it became important in the
popularisation of the Internet. It is the fastest growing medium and the number
of worldwide users increases every
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. The Internet has always been referred to as
new media. Why?
2. The Internet is the most powerful and
influential media. Do you agree with that statement? Discuss with your
coursemates.
3.2.3 Communication System
Communication has always been the essence of
living life. With the advancement of technology and the creation of telecommunication,
data communication, and mass communication, our communication has become easier
and widespread across boundaries. Furthermore, the convergence of these three
networks and the emergence of integrated network, plus the influence of
Internet, we now have one single digital communication infrastructure. This
technology links all activities both online and offline communication.
The changing development of new technology
affects our communication system in terms of the transmission medium. The communication
system (Refer to Figure 3.1) is a process of conveying information from a
source to a destination. The system may contain more than one source or more
than one destination, which is called a communication network. Communication
systems consist of the
following elements:
1. Transmitter·convert the original signal to be
suitable for transmission.
2. Receiver·accepts the transmitted signals and
converts back to original form.
3. Transmission medium (channel)·provide means of
transporting signals from the transmitter to receiver such as copper wires,
fibre optic or free space.
The development of technology provides us with
two basic types of communication, namely analogue communication system and
digital communication. Both types have their own advantages and disadvantages.
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. List the advantages and disadvantages of
analogue communication.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of
digital communication.
Figure 3.1: Simplified Communication System Model
Nowadays, long distance communication is no
longer a problem. From micro-electronics, the technologies moved to the
invention of the integrated semiconductor and microprocessors that has been
used in computerisation and telephone networks. Computer networks were then
replaced by fibre-optics which increased the capacity of coaxial cables or
copper wires by four or five.
The connection of messages continues to improve
by cable and air. We now have radio and satellite communication which we know
as wireless communication system. The information is carried by electromagnetic
waves, which is propagated in free space. The Internet and computers are
extremely important in our communication system because these two components
give us better communication capacities for speed and geographical reach.
GLOBAL NETWORK.
The existence of telephony devices and the
Internet created the network that connected people from all places and
diminished the constraints of space and time. The development of network
technologies such as telephones and the Internet created the global networks
which are often referred to as communication networks or media that connects
other people. This communication technology offered new ways in human contact
and offers new sites for social, intellectual, and political growth.
Setting up global networks requires immense
efforts which are typically costly and lengthy. It also needs sophisticated
interconnections, switching and routing devices, laying out physical carriers
of information, such as land and submarine cables. Besides that, this
technology needs the involvement of international communication protocol and
legislation. Still, it is a great investment which benefits all.
The ability to make and receive long-distance communication
such as telephone calls is now possible for people in most parts of this world.
Global networking seems like a new dimension of change and opportunity
especially with the creation of ARPAnet followed by email on network. Now,
global networks link millions of users around the world and the number is
steadily increasing.
Actually, the first global network refers to the
telegraph and the telephony networks which achieved global status in the 1950s.
Now the technology keeps advancing with interconnected IP network (Internet),
communication satellite, and the GSM mobile communication network which form
the argest global networks of all.
The uses of computer network for international
communication have improved and expanded how we connect, communicate, and
create communities. This involves millions of computers. Computer communication
networks have the ability to allow us to be active participants because of the
elements of interactivity.
Global networks are not only a tool but offer a
venue for a “global village”, namely a place where the world can meet. The
interaction can be held on a network, also known as “online” or “cyberspace”.
This all can be done using systems such as e-mail, bulletin boards, computer
conferencing, televirtuality and others. Therefore, with this system and
technology of networks, the global networks can unite people all around the
world.
3.4 RESEARCHING
THE INTERNET
The Internet can be referred to as a very huge
library. It contains a variety of resources and information that is easily
searchable. We can search for people, news, data and statistics, opinions,
online works, etc. Now many printed material are converted to the digital form
and are published on the Internet. Therefore, we can read journals, newspapers,
magazines, and books online. Through the
Internet too, we can also find various kinds of
commercial software, music, movie, images, and personal information. However,
we have to take extra care with these kinds of content in terms of its
legality.
The Internet is one of the main sources in
research. According to Fredericks (2000), there is a six-step cycle research in
problem-solving by using the Internet in an appropriate manner as shown below:
1. Question ă good research comes from good
questions which help to focus on a specific subject.
2. Site investigation ă checking for the
appropriate sites and listing or eliminating the inappropriate sites.
3. Data gathering ă going online to obtain
information that we need to answer the questions which were generated in the
early step.
4. Data analysis ă analyse the information
obtained and eliminate unnecessary information while keeping the important and
relevant data.
5. Compare and contrast ă make a comparison
between the information collected from the Internet with other information
sources.
6. Extend ă share what we had searched to enrich
knowledge.
Every research begins with a question that helps
to focus on a specific subject finding. There are all kinds of websites that
can be useful to the researcher. A web search can be done in many ways. The use
of general search engines such as AltaVista, Google, Yahoo, Lycos, and Excite
is a primary research tool in discovering information on the Internet. A search
engine is nothing more than an indexing service of websites. These indexes are
updated frequently and organised according to the cataloguing procedures of
each search engine.
Google is said to be the largest database,
containing excellent advanced searching techniques, and uses algorithms that
frequently supply more relevant results to a given query. However, no single
search tool, including Google, can give you all the information there is to be
found on the Web on any given subject. When this happens, we can use other
means such as the following:
1. Specialised tool·A specialty search tool with
a more focused database may be a better option. We can use these specialised
tools to find experts and expert advise, search the Web by asking questions and
not by using keywords, and find industry newsletters, specific search
directories and other tools, mailing lists as well as industry discussion
groups. Here is the list of specialty search tools:
(a) Targeted directory: Composed by editors with
specific expertise in
(b) Focused search engine: A search engine that
indexes web pages on
(c) Portals: Provide a start page for browsing
and designed to get you to
(d) Meta Search Engine: A search tool that can
send queries to multiple one area. An example is the Internet Intelligence
Index (www.fuld.com/ Tools/I3/). It contains links to intelligence-related
Internet sites.
specific topics or areas such as LawCrawler
(http://lawcrawler.lp.findlaw.com).
relevant web sources quickly and easily. An
example is
www.msn.com. Portals are often used as a
browserÊs start page and
can contain all sorts of information on
entertainment, sports, the stock
market, weather, local interest stories, etc.
They often contain links to
popular commercial and business sites as well.
general search engines and directories
simultaneously. MetaCrawler
(www.metacrawler.com) is an example of this kind
of tool.
2. Online publication·We can search information
from:
(a) News articles/newspapers.
(b) Articles and papers from technical
journals/proceedings.
(c) Magazine articles/online magazines.
(d) Books.
(e) Journals.
(f) Educational resources.
(g) Information on scientific/engineering topics.
3. Exploring government agencies/institutions
sites·These sites provide reliable data from authoritative sources.
4. Business/Competitor/Financial Information
tool·The Internet contains many business resources. There are websites that
allow information to be retrieved pertaining to:
(a) Available consultants/experts on a given
topic/industry;
(b) Company annual reports;
(c) Marketing reports; and
(d) Specific industries.
Because of the ability to archive unlimited
information, the Internet has been used as a data gathering tool in many
research activities. It is just one tool in research field. With huge
information that is being offered on the Internet, we also have to make sure of
the accuracy, precision, and how up-to-date the information is. Just because
the Internet has the ability to search and retrieve data, it does not mean that
the online information is valid, up-to-date, appropriate, and necessary.
3.5 PEOPLE AND THE INTERNET
The Internet began as a military project. Then it
was opened to universities and researchers to communicate with each other. In
the 1980s, the Internet had spread to people all around the world. Since then,
this network of networks has been used by many people, organisations,
educational institutions, governments, and others as a communication tool. With
the advancement of information and communication technology, the Internet is
capable of immense data sharing and communication. Anyone can access and share
the information on the Internet.
With its capability to allow interactive
communication, communication through the Internet has attracted people to use
it to connect with more people and getting responses within minutes. The
Internet is also a global network that links everybody worldwide. The most
common method of communication on the Internet can be divided into six types: a
one-to-one message (such as an e-mail), a one-to-many message (such as
listserv), database messages (such as USENET), real time communication (such as
Internet Relay Chat), real-time remote computer utilisation (like telnet), and
remote information retrieval (such as global networking or web).
Table 3.1: Statistics on Internet usage and
population in Southeast Asia in 2009
Country
|
Population
(2009 -
Estimated)
|
Internet
User (2000)
|
Internet
User
(2009)
|
User
Growth
(2000-2009)
|
Penetration
rate (%
population)
|
Brunei
|
388,190
|
30,000
|
187,900
|
526.3%
|
55.9%
|
Philippines
|
97,976,603
|
2,000,000
|
24,000,000
|
932.5%
|
24.5%
|
Laos
|
6,834345
|
6,000
|
100,000
|
1,566.7%
|
7.7%
|
Indonesia
|
249,271,522
|
2,000,000
|
25,000,000
|
1,150%
|
12.5%
|
Malaysia
|
25,715,819
|
3,700,000
|
16,902,600
|
356.8%
|
65.7%
|
Myanmar
|
48,137,741
|
1,000
|
40,000
|
3,900%
|
0.2%
|
Singapore
|
4,657,542
|
1,200,000
|
3,104,900
|
156.7%
|
72.4%
|
Thailand
|
65,998,436
|
2,300,000
|
13,416,000
|
483.3%
|
24.4%
|
Vietnam
|
88,576,758
|
2,000,000
|
21,524,417
|
10,662.2%
|
25.7%
|
Even though the Internet is not a necessity or
important utility, more and more people use this technology. With the Internet,
we can get any updated information from time to time. Active Internet users
worldwide are estimated at 625 million people and almost a fifth of that total
use mobile Internet. A total of 17 per cent of users now access the Internet
when they are outside. Malaysians are among the highest Internet users in this
region with a penetration of 65.7%, just after Singapore.
The age group of 18 to 44 years old comprises
half of the Internet population. However, the youth dominate the Internet
population. In addition to going online to communicate with their peers, the
youth also use it for matters related to education since the Internet offers
the biggest library of information in the world. The adults use the Internet
for work and business purposes such as e-mail, instant messenger, e-marketing, and online
forum. Nowadays, almost all activities can be done through the Internet
including banking, online shopping, e-business, online journalism, online
meeting and discussion, spreading information and others. As a matter of fact,
it is used by everybody, including politicians, governments, celebrities,
publishers, international organisations, and disabled persons.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Even though the Internet has been used by many
people because of its advantages, it still raises some issues among the users,
such as the following. Discuss these issues with your course mates.
1. Internet and children.
2. Internet and media freedom.
3. Internet and intellectual property.
4. The misuse of Internet in the workplace.
3.6 ON-LINE
COMMUNITIES
Social interaction and community development
based on technical-oriented equipment as well as combined with a desire to
develop the collective efforts of individuals led to the formation of a group
known as the "online community‰. It is also known as a virtual community.
The online community has become an important phrase when talking about online
social activity. It is created and maintained via the Internet.
The terms "online community" and
"virtual community" are often used in succession and became popular
since the mid-1970s. It does not involve face- to-face communication or
communication between individuals or groups through the media. This terminology
is often used to refer to the interaction activities (communication and
participation) of certain groups of communication through
the Internet, whether for social, professional,
education or for other purposes. It relates to both the how and why aspects of
communication and participation using networked technologies.
There are various definitions given for this
terminology. Pioneers in research and development of on-line communities, such
as Hiltz (1985) and Aksan (1993), used the term "online community" to
describe the intimacy, empathy, and support among the members in the online
space that they observe. Ohler (1994) gives the simple definition by saying
that online communities is "a CMC-based communication" while Preece (2005) refers it to
"any group that uses Internet technology to communicate with each other." Based
on Jenny Preece (2000), online communities consist of these four elements:
1. People, the interaction that satisfies the
needs of their own work or play in a particular role, as moderator, or leader.
2. Sharing purposes, such as interests, needs,
exchange information or services that give service to the community.
3. Policy, in the form of assumptions, rituals,
protocols, regulations, or laws governing an interaction that is done.
4. Computer systems, to support social
interaction and facilitate unity.
The most famous definition in this field is
adapted from Howard Rheingold (1994) that defined online communities as
follows: "Ú social aggregations that
emerge from the Net when enough people carry on those public discussions long
enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationship in
cyberspace."
For Rheingold, online communities arose from
three interrelated attributes of CMC: the building of social networks and
social capital; the sharing of knowledge and information; and the enabling of
new modes of democratic participation in public life. An online community can
also be identified as a site of play through the creation of an online
identity. This can be seen in online interaction or Internet communication among
the participants through MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons) and MOOs (Multi-User
Object-Oriented Domain).
Interaction in this cyberspace cross over the
geographical distance and make space for physically separated humans to meet.
This social formation is called communities and it is created in virtual space
not the concrete space that is limited by certain boundaries or real objects.
Depending on the purposes or the benefits·which
collect information ranging from social interaction to maintain a presence·an
online community depends on the participation of individuals in it. The social
interaction that is united in various forms of community involvement led to the
development of community resources. New content appears as long as members
continue to communicate, attract new members and to keep on the discussion and
add to the contents and resources in the community.
This online community actually exists with the
introduction of Usenet newsgroups in 1979, but it is only used by about five to
10 percent of Internet users at the time. The development of static web pages
in the 1990s to interactive sites not only allows interaction between the web
page and the users, but also among the users, causing this community to grow
further. This community has become larger since more and more people entered
the cyber world and joined the on-line groups that have been created in many
Internet-based applications such as online forum, online social networking,
virtual worlds, and blogs.
3.7 VIRTUALITY
AND GLOBALISATION
The idea of virtuality and globalisation is often
related with significant usage of the information and communication technology.
It is also associated with other technological advances, including computer
technology and its connection via the Internet.
These two terms emerged when people become
interconnected by network technology. It dismisses space and time. Geography
can no longer hinder us from wanting to communicate and interact with each
other, even with people who live far away from us.
3.7.1 Virtuality
Virtuality is one of the characteristics of new
media as stated in Topic 1. It refers to the metaphorical „place‰ and spaces‰
created by or within communication networks. In this term, it creates
opportunities for the user to adopt markers or identities that differ from
their identity as constituted in the physical and everyday social world. It
also refers to the possibility of forming new kinds of association and
community which are not dependent upon spatial location and can transcend
geographical, social and political boundaries.
The term „virtuality‰ or „the virtual‰ applies to
several different forms of media and image technologies. We come across this
term in the discussions of the Internet, World Wide Web, 3D, screen-based
multimedia, and also in some convergence of old media such as in cinema, video,
and computer animation. It also features in postmodern culture which refers to
many aspects of everyday experiences related to technological simulation. This
term is often related to virtual reality and cyberspace. However, the two
elements usually associated with virtuality are (1) a lack of a distinct of
physical centre and (2) a network characteristic.
Generally, virtuality is a socially constructed
reality mediated by electronic media. In business terms, virtuality exists in
the form of lifestyle choices (home-working), ways of working (global product
development teams), new products (virtual museum), and new business models
(such as Internet dating agencies).
From a globalisation perspective, virtuality
always refers to products of electronic industry and the tangible projection of
images and text on electronic Van Dijk (1999) suggests that going virtual, in
comparison with face to face interaction, is characterised by:
1. A less stable and concrete reality without
time, place and physical ties.
2. More abstract interaction which affects
knowledge creation.
3. A networked reality which both disperses and
concentrates power, offering new ways of exercising power.
4. Diffused and less hierarchical communities and
interaction due to the more dynamic flow of knowledge and greater equality in
participation.
5. A reality often shaped around special
interests.
In geographical space, we identify each other by
the body. The body plays an important role in every interaction. It plays two
social functions, namely to identify who is who and to give non-verbal
information during the interaction. However, virtuality does not involve that.
The body is missing but interaction can still be done anywhere, and nowhere. In
a virtual context, individuals interact at a distance and can interact
asynchronously in cyberspace through the mediation of information and
communication technologies. This is what happens in cyberspace interaction or
computer-mediated communication. Cyberspace interaction is when two or more
persons at the same time observe words or speech from one another by technology
that reduces geographical spaces.
In the cyberspace interaction·or
computer-mediated communication·the physical body cannot be present in our
interaction with others. Therefore, the virtual functional equivalent to the
physical body has to be used, such as signature and addresses. A signature can
be a text or drawing that is automatically associated in your e-mail, which
declares who you are or something that you want to be identified with, such as
a name, work title, or homepage address. The domain name can be an important
clue to the identity.
The emoticons such as a smiley (:D) and acronyms
such as LOL (Laughing out Loud) has been used as body language in this kind of
interaction.
Virtuality is well shown by a technology of
networks in which the hardware determines the possibilities of person to person
interaction. This allows anonymity in direct interaction. All personality
features are hidden and the virtual personality takes over the conversation.
Many organisations nowadays create their virtual presence to reach larger
consumers through network technologies. Through the homepage or online form,
they can communicate and interact with their clients and customers without the
constraints of time and geography. Have you used an instant messenger such as
Google Talk or Yahoo Messenger? This is an example of Internet communication or
cyberspace interaction that can be done and how virtuality is presented.
3.7.2 Globalization
What is „globalisation‰? The word globalisation
is frequently used in this millennium. Global society, global village, global
economic and global trade are among the words that go along with globalisation.
If we ask for the definition of this term, the answers varies because "globalisation" means different things to different people. Some say it is the
movement of people, language, ideas, and products around the world. Others see
it as the dominance of multinational corporations and the destruction of
cultural identities. Globalisation is said to bring people of all nations
closer together with growing interdependence, especially through a common
medium like the economy or the Internet.
Generally, globalisation refers to the growth of
ties that span space. It involves spreading or diffusing things or information,
greater interdependent among more people, new forms of organisations, and a
wider awareness of commonalities. It is often associated with virtuality. This
term describes a process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures
have become integrated through a global network of communication, transportation,
and trade. This makes more and more people connected in various ways across
larger distances. Space becomes less of a constraint in our social life·same as
virtuality.
Source Definition.
Robertson (1992) Globalisation is a concept that
refers both to compression of the world Waters (2001) A social process in which
the constraints of geography in social and Scholte (2005) The spreading of
transplanetary connection between people. A global and strengthening of
consciousness of the world as a whole cultural arrangement recede and in which
people become increasingly aware that they are receding. [relation]Ú can link
persons situated in any inhabitable point in the world. Globalisation involves
reductions of barriers to such transworld social contacts.
Globalisation involves an increase in flows and
networks across the globe.
Additionally, globalisation increases the
likelihood that an event in one part of the world will have an effect in a
distant part of the world. In its simplest sense, globalisation refers to the
widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnectedness. For Frank J
Lencher, globalisation consists of at least these elements: diffusion,
interdependence, organisation, and cultural or consciousness. It can be used to
describe a series of interrelated process such as 1. Internationalisation of
production, trade, and finance with the rise of multinational corporations and
the rise of Internet-based electronic commerce.
2. International communication flows, delivered
through telecommunication, information and media technologies which facilitate
transnational circulation of cultural commodities, texts, images, and
artefacts.
3. The establishment of international regimes in
intellectual property which embedded the enforceability of ownership of
knowledge and information.
4. Global spreading of ideas and ideologies, such
as the export of Western values, democratic aspirations, and environmental
consciousness.
According to Flew (2004), the media is central to
globalisation in all of its forms. However, sometimes, the media seems to be
responsible for weakening the cultural bonds that ties people to nation-states
and national communities. Media acts as technologies and service delivery
platforms. The media industries become leaders in the push towards global
expansion and integration.
In addition, the development of new media seems
to be a significant driver to globalisation. With the worldwide Internet
protocols, the broadband networks have the ability to transfer a diverse range
of digitised signals across vast areas.
The use of the Internet as a global media and
information archive media helps the growing magnitude of interconnections of
patterns of interactions and flows between societies and states that lead to
the creation of the network society. New media has also been used as a tool by
critics of globalisation on some issues such as those related to political
activism and crisis of democracy.
ACTIVITY 3.4
1. Globalisation has changed the type of society,
from the tribal to impacts as following:
2. The processes of globalisation involve four
different types of mass society to networked society. In this form of society,
we become more interdependent with each other. What do you think about this
change? Discuss it.
(a) Decisional impact.
(b) Institutional impact.
(c) Distributive impact.
(d) Structural impact.
Discuss each type of the impacts stated above.
x Interactivity is used in the field of computer
sciences, industrial design, and communication.
x In new media, interactivity is a key
association that sets apart the old and new media.
x Interactivity can be defined generally as a
sequence of action and reaction. It refers to the usersÊ ability to directly
intervene in and change the images and texts that they access. So, the audience
for new media becomes a user rather than viewer or reader of media
products.
x The existence of telephony devices and the
Internet has created a network that connects people at all places and
diminished the constraints of space and time.
x The development of technology provides us with
two basic types of communication, namely analogue communication system and
digital communication.
Communication
Globalisation
Interactivity
1. Define the meaning of "interactivity".
2. Global networks connect peoples. Give a few
examples of global networks.
3. Internet is always about network of networks.
Why?
4. How does an online community emerge?
5. Globalisation has many meanings. Give some
definitions of globalisation that you know of.
1. The Internet was not open to the public when
it emerged for the first time.
Explain the history of the Internet.
2. An online community is created from
interaction activities through cyberspace. Discuss some of the activities.
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