13.2 u Answers

13.2 u Answers

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Exercise 1.1
1. The ten myths of entrepreneurship are:
(a) Entrepreneurs Are Doers, Not Thinkers
(b) Entrepreneurs Are Born, Not Made
(c) Entrepreneurs Are Always Inventors
(d) Entrepreneurs Are Academic and Social Misfits
(e) Entrepreneurs Must Fit the „Profile‰
(f) All Entrepreneurs Need Is Money
(g) All Entrepreneurs Need Is Luck
(h) Ignorance Is Bliss for Entrepreneurs
(i) Entrepreneurs Seek Success but Experience High Failure Rates
(j) Entrepreneurs Are Extreme Risk Takers (Gamblers)

2. Entrepreneurship is important because of the following reasons:
(a) It is a catalyst for economic change and growth.
(b) It increases per capita output and income.
(c) It involves initiating and constituting change in the structure of
business and society.
(d) It increases a country's output and productivity.
(e) It encourages innovation and creativity.
(f) It develops new products or services for the market to fulfil human
needs. Society will get better goods and services at cheaper prices.
(g) It stimulates investment interest in the new ventures.
(h) Entrepreneurship, through its process of innovation, creates new
investment of new ventures.
(i) More ventures are created and new jobs are produced, thus reducing
the unemployment rate.
(j) It creates and promotes wealth distribution.

3. Entrepreneurship has existed in Malaysia (Malaya) since the interaction of
Malacca with foreign traders. However, when the British colonised the
Malay Peninsular, they changed the structure of the society and practised
the „divide and rule‰ system in which the Malays were engaged in
administration and agriculture, the Chinese in mining and business, and
the Indians in rubber plantations. As a result of this system, the Chinese
society was far ahead in business compared to the Malays and Indians.

 After independence, the Malaysian Government realised the importance of
entrepreneurship to individuals, society and the country, and how it
contributes to the nationÊs prosperity. Since then, the government has been
focusing on the field of entrepreneurship until today. The New Economic
Policy (1971a1990), the National Development Policy (1990a2000) and
Vision 2020, all encourage and support entrepreneurship development in
Malaysia.

The government encourages entrepreneurship development and gives
recognition to entrepreneurs because they can contribute to the
development of the country. In 1995, the government incorporated the
Ministry of Entrepreneurship Development as a specific body to manage
and promote the growth of entrepreneurship in Malaysia. Today, this
ministry is named the Ministry of Entrepreneurship Development and Cooperation.

TOPIC 2: IDENTIFYING ENTREPRENEURIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Exercise 2.1
The common characteristics of successful entrepreneurs are:
(a) Initiative and responsibility
(b) High degree of commitment
(c) Opportunity orientation
(d) Moderate risk taker
(e) Confidence and optimistic
(f) Creative and innovative
(g) Seeking feedback
(h) Drive to achieve
(i) Vision
(j) Skill at organising
(k) Internal locus of control
(l) Tolerance for failure
(m) High level of energy
(n) Team building
(o) Independence
(p) Flexibility

TOPIC 3: DEVELOPING ENTREPRENEURIAL CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION

Exercise 3.1
Creativity involves the development of unique and novel responses to problems
and opportunities. There are four main phases or steps in the creative process:

(a) Phase 1: Background or Knowledge Accumulation
 This involves some form of reading, discussion with others working in the
same field, attending professional seminars or workshops and so forth in
order to gather related information.

(b) Phase 2: The Incubation Process
 Individuals are not involved with any business-related activities directly to
solve the problems. Instead, they will try to get rid of the problems and let
their subconscious minds work on it.

(c) Phase 3: The Idea Experience
 During this phase, the long sought after solution or answer for an existing
problem is finally found. This phase is also referred to as the „Eureka
factor‰.

(d) Phase 4: Evaluation and Implementation
 In the final phase, an entrepreneur will transform an idea into reality. This
is an extremely difficult phase because it requires courage, self-regulation,
high confidence and perseverance.

Exercise 3.2
The following are the techniques for generating creative ideas:

(a) Mind Mapping
 This technique allows one to use pictures and/or word phrases to organise
and develop thoughts in a non-linear fashion. It helps people to „see‰ a
problem and its solution.

(b) Nominal Group
 Nominal groups are used to generate ideas and evaluate solutions face-toface
in non-threatening group circumstances, in which members do so by
writing down silently as many ideas as possible.

(c) Brainstorming
 Brainstorming is the most common and powerful technique used to
hatch ideas. During a brainstorming session, all the members of a group
suggest ideas that are then discussed. The ideal number of group members
involved in brainstorming is between four and seven.

TOPIC 4: VENTURES ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT

Exercise 4.1
Business environments can be divided into two parts, which are known as:
(a) The macro view of the external environment; and
(b) The micro view of the external environment and the internal environment.
Each of these consist of many components that need to be assessed.
The macro environment consists of the following elements:
C Politics and legislation;
C Economy;
C Socio-cultural; and
C Technology.

The micro environment consists of the following elements:
C Customers;
C Competitors;
C Suppliers;
C Financial institutions;
C Non-government organisations; and
C Government agencies.
The internal organisation environment consists of the following elements:
C Organisation structure;
C Culture; and
C Resources.

Exercise 4.2
Entrepreneurs need to analyse each component of macro and micro
environments because of the following reasons:

(a) The macro environment, also known as the external environment, is
important for entrepreneurs because they can identify opportunities and
threats after scanning and assessing it. This environment can influence
business decision making in the long term and comprises uncontrollable
elements.
(b) The micro environment of a business venture is also part of the venture's
external environment but can directly influence entrepreneur's decisions
and activities. It is also known as industrial environment.
(c) The internal environment can also influence the decision making of
entrepreneurs directly. But they control these elements.

Exercise 4.3
The seven potential sources of opportunity are:

(a) The Unexpected
 Opportunities can be found when situations and events are unanticipated.
The event might be unexpected success/good news or unexpected failure/
bad news that can be an opportunity for entrepreneurs to pursue.

(b) The Incongruous
Incongruous situations happen when there are inconsistencies in the
way they appear. For example, there are opportunities to capture when
conventional wisdom about the way things should be no longer holds true.
In these types of situations, entrepreneurs who are willing to think beyond
the traditional approach may find a potential possibility.

(c) The Process Need
 Entrepreneurial opportunities could also surface throughout the process
of discovery such as the process of research and development done by
the researchers and technicians of a product or service. Even before a
breakthrough, there will be numerous opportunities which could be seized
by entrepreneurs during the process.

(d) Industry and Market Structures
 Changes in technology, social value and customer's tastes can change the
structure of an industry and market. These situations, however, will give
entrepreneurs opportunities to innovate their product or services.

(e) Demographics
 Changes in demographics will influence industries and markets upon
their target market and market segmentation. These can be entrepreneurial
opportunities in anticipating and meeting needs of the population.

(f) Change in Perception
Perception is one's view of reality. Changes in perception get to the heart of
people's psychographic profiles of what their values are, what they believe
in, and what they care about. Changes in these attitude and values create
potential market opportunities to alert entrepreneurs.

(g) New Knowledge
New knowledge can be a source of opportunities for entrepreneurs.
Examples of new knowledge are new technologies and new discoveries that
can be sources of information for entrepreneurial innovation. Entrepreneurs
who come out with new products and processes that can compete with
other products can manipulate this kind of knowledge.

TOPIC 5: BUSINESS PLAN

Exercise 5.1
Business plans are important for entrepreneurs because of the following reasons:
(a) Increase opportunities for success.
(b) Develop mission and vision.
(c) Identify the main competitor(s).
(d) Identify the right way of managing the business.
(e) Increase the stakeholdersÊ confidence.
(f) Identify barriers to business.
(g) As a performance tool.
Exercise 5.2
The important elements in a good business plan are:
(a) Executive summary
(b) Market analysis
(c) Marketing and sales strategies
(d) Services or product line
(e) Organisation and management
(f) Funding request
(g) Financials
(h) Appendix

Exercise 5.3
The factors which contribute to the failure of business plans are:
(a) No realistic goals.
(b) Failure to anticipate obstacles.
(c) No commitment or dedication.
(d) Lack of business or technical experience.
(e) No market niche.

TOPIC 6: STARTING AN ENTREPRENEURIAL NEW VENTURE

Exercise 6.1
1. A start-up company is a recently formed company. It is a process where an
entrepreneur creates a completely new business starting from scratch.
2. The three phases in a start-up are:
(a) Pre start-up.
(b) Start-up.
(c) Post start-up.
3. The critical factors that are important for new-venture assessment are as
follows:
(a) The uniqueness of the venture.
(b) The investment size at start-up.
(c) The expected increase in sales and profits as the venture cruises
through the start-up phase.
(d) The availability of products during the two phases.
(e) The availability of customers during the two phases.

Exercise 6.2
1. (a) The five advantages of a start-up are as follows:
(i) The freedom of making oneÊs own decisions.
(ii) The opportunity of using oneÊs ideas.
(iii) The freedom to select the ideal location, plant, equipment,
products or services, employees, suppliers and bankers.
(iv) Undesirable precedents, policies, procedures and legal
commitments of existing firms are not a problem for a start-up
venture.
(v) It will not affect the reputation of the business because it is a
new venture.

(b) The five disadvantages of a start-up are as follows:
(i) It requires a lot of time, money and additional effort.
(ii) At the initial stage of the business, entrepreneurs will make
minimal profits or losses.
(iii) There is no history of business records.
(iv) There are no ready customers.
(v) The difficulty of obtaining loans from financial institutions.
2. Buying an existing business means buying or acquiring either the shares of
an existing company or all of the assets of an existing company or business.

3. (a) The advantages of buying an existing business are as follows:
(i) Immediate operations
(ii) Easier financing
(iii) Quick cash flow
(iv) A market for the product or service will have already been
established.
(v) Existing customers
(vi) A business plan and marketing method should already be in
place.

(b) Disadvantages of buying an existing business are as follows:
(i) Costly
(ii) A neglected business needs a large investment.
(iii) Outstanding contracts
(iv) Inherent problems
(v) Personal conflicts
(vi) Obsolete goods
Exercise 6.3
1. The three legal forms of organisations are as follows:
(a) Sole proprietorship
(b) Partnership
(c) Corporation

2. (a) The advantages of sole proprietorships are as follows:
(i) Ease of formatio.
(ii) Sole ownership profits
(iii) Decision-making and control vested in one owner
(iv) Flexibility
(v) Relative freedom from governmental control

(b) The disadvantages of sole proprietorship are as follows:
(i) Unlimited liability
(ii) Lack of continuity
(iii) Less available capital
(iv) Relatively difficult to obtain long-term financing
(v) Relatively listed viewpoint and experience

Exercise 6.4
(a) The five advantages of partnerships are as follows:
(i) Ease of formation
(ii) Direct rewards
(iii) Growth and performance facilitated
(iv) Flexibility
(v) Relative freedom from governmental control and regulation

(b) Disadvantages of partnerships are as follows:
(i) Unlimited liability
(ii) Lack of continuity
(iii) Relatively difficult to obtain large sums of capital
(iv) Bound by the acts of just one partner
(v) Difficulty of disposing of partnership interest

Exercise 6.5
(a) The five advantages of a corporation are as follows:
(i) Limited liability
(ii) Transfer of ownership
(iii) Unlimited life
(iv) Relative ease of securing capital in large amounts
(v) Increased ability and expertise
(b) The five disadvantages of a corporation are as follows:
(i) Activities restricted
(ii) Lack of representation
(iii) Extensive governmental regulations and reports required
(iv) Organising expenses
(v) Double taxation

Exercise 6.6
Five sources of capital that an entrepreneur can use in starting up or buying an
existing business are as follows:
(a) Personal funds
(b) Family and friends
(c) Retirement account
(d) Banks and other financial institutions
(e) Government loans
(f) Stock markets
(Any five answers)

TOPIC 7: ENTREPRENEURIAL NETWORKING

Exercise 7.1
The advantages that an entrepreneur would gain from good networking are:

(a) Accessibility
Networking is very important for the entrepreneur to gain either tangible
or intangible resources directly or indirectly. Among the tangible resources
are financial support, transfer of technology and accessibility in gaining
information to produce the right product at the right cost and the right time
as demanded by the market. Intangible resources are the moral support,
guidance and confidence provided by various groups to entrepreneurs in
operating their business.

(b) Reputation
Reputation refers to the ability of entrepreneurs to exercise leadership or to
influence the decision making of other network members, based on the
expertise that they have. A good reputation enables entrepreneurs to attract
members in networking circles to give priority to the product or services
they produce.

\(c) Expectations
These can both facilitate and restrict the freedom of the company's actions.
For example, network members could have the expectation that a particular
company will effectively set prices for a number of other companies. On the
other hand, a company may be expected not to take advantage of product
shortages by raising prices or to conform to conventional competition or to
set higher ethical standards than others.

Exercise 7.2
The three ways to establish strategic networking for entrepreneurs are:
(a) Good Planning
To be successful in the entrepreneurial process and management, we must
have good planning. Every plan must begin with the questions:
(i) What your goals?
(ii) What are your strengths?
(iii) What are your weaknesses?
(iv) What do you want to achieve through networking?

(b) Ask Yourself
Every entrepreneur must know what to achieve in the networking exercise.
An entrepreneur should ask himself what he wants and how many
networking relationships he wants in one month. Then, he must identify
his customers, what kind of business gives profits and what are the
contributions he can make to others.

(c) Learning Networking Technique
As an entrepreneur, he must attend business association meetings and join
associations such as business, sports and computer associations. By doing
so, the entrepreneur will acquire the spirit to achieve his business plan.

TOPIC 8: EVALUATION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES

Exercise 8.1
The six pitfalls in selecting new ventures:
(a) Lack of Objective Evaluation
(b) No Real Insight into the Market
(c) Inadequate Understanding of Technical Requirements
(d) Poor Financial Understanding
(e) Lack of Venture Uniqueness
(f) Ignorance of Legal Issues

Exercise 8.2
The main reasons why new ventures fail:
(a) Product/Market Problems
(i) Poor timing
(ii) Product design problems
(iii) Inappropriate distribution strategy
(iv) Unclear business definition
(v) Over reliance on one customer
(b) Financial Difficulties
(i) Initial undercapitalisation
(ii) Assuming debt too early
(iii) Venture capital relationship problems

(c) Managerial Problems
(i) Concept of a team approach (e.g. hiring and promotions based on
nepotism rather than qualification; poor relationships with parent
companies and venture capitalist; founders who focus on their
weaknesses rather than their strengths; incompetent support
professionals).
(ii) Human resource problems (e.g. kickbacks and subsequent firings;
deceit on the part of the venture capitalist; verbal agreements not
honoured; protracted lawsuits).

TOPIC 9: ENTREPRENEUR AND PERSONAL
FINANCIAL PLANNING

Exercise 9.1
The five steps in deriving your net worth:
(a) Step 1 : List the things of value that you own
(b) Step 2 : Total up your assets
(c) Step 3 : List the things that you owe to others
(d) Step 4 : Total up your liabilities
(e) Step 5 : Assets minus Liabilities

Exercise 9.2
The considerations to prepare a successful budget:
(a) Be Patient and Disciplined
 A good budget takes time and effort to prepare. Do not give up because
you feel that there is too much to do!
(b) Be Realistic
 If you have a moderate income, do not expect to save a lot of money in a
short period of time.
(c) Be Flexible
 There will be unexpected expenses and changes in the prices of groceries
and other items. Revise your budget when needed.
(d) Set Aside an Amount of Money to Enjoy Yourself
 You are young and will want to have a night out with friends or to watch a
movie.

TOPIC 10: ACHIEVING ENTREPRENEUR’S PERSONAL FINANCIAL DREAMS

Exercise 10.1

The main types of investment:

(a) Cash and Fixed Interest Investments
 Cash investments are the most common form of investment in Malaysia,
covering products such as bank savings accounts and fixed deposits. They
provide easy access to your money when you need it, and there is no
chance you could lose any capital a so they are very secure.

(b) Shares
 Shares (also known as equities or stocks) represent ownership in a
company. When you buy a share, you become a part-owner in the company
and become entitled to share in its future value and profits.

(c) Unit Trust Funds
 In a unit trust, money from hundreds of individual investors are pooled
together to buy a large number of different assets. Professional fund
managers decide what percentage of the fund should be invested in each
asset class, and also which countries, industries and companies have the
best prospects for good returns.

(d) Property
 Property is one asset class that most Malaysians are familiar with. Property
investment offers value to investors in two ways:
(i) Properties increase in capital value over time as house and land prices
rise.
(ii) You can earn rental income from tenants.

(e) Bonds
When you buy a government or corporate bond, you are 'lending' your
money for a certain period of time at a predetermined interest rate. In
return, you receive a steady income stream through regular interest
payments.

(f) Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT)
This is similar to a unit trust except that the investments are in property and
real estate. The profits from such investments are passed on to investors in
the form of dividends.

Exercise 10.2

The basic types of family takaful include:
(a) Individual Family
 With plans that include education, mortgage and health, you and your
beneficiary will receive financial benefits arising from death or permanent
disability. There are also long-term savings and investment profits are
distributed upon claim, maturity or early surrender.
(b) Retirement Annuity
 This is a plan that provides you with a regular income upon retirement.
(c) Investment-linked
 Combining investment and protection, part of your contribution is used to
buy investment units while the balance goes towards providing coverage in
the event of death or permanent disability.
(d) Medical and Health
 This covers the costs of medical treatment, including hospitalisation and
surgery.
Exercise 10.3
The main types of loan:
(a) Personal Loan
 This is a loan offered for your personal use, not for a large purchase such as
a house or car, but more for the purchase of a personal computer or money
to use towards your marriage.
(b) Car Loan
 You become the hirer of the car while the financial institution is the owner.
As the hirer, you pay installments to the financial institution based on their
terms and conditions. You become the owner after completing all your
payments.
(c) Housing Loan
 The market for housing loans today is very competitive and financial
institutions now offers all kinds of loans to attract customers. Some loans
are even packaged with free gifts.

13 TOPIC 3 SOCIETY AND MEDIA DEFINITION OF MEDIA

ABCR3303 (INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION)
TOPIC 3 SOCIETY AND MEDIA DEFINITION OF MEDIA

INTRODUCTION
The methods of communicating and networking between and within the world
community have become more varied due to the advancement of technologies in
this century. Socialising through the old and new media as well as various other
platforms has become a popular trend, a cultural innovation and a modern
lifestyle. Society has played an important role in the expansion of media.
As a concept, 'society' refers to a sense of mutual togetherness and sense of
belonging between two people or more. In social studies, society has various
definitions. According to McIver and Page (1961), society is described as an
organised social connection in and through human beings. Meanwhile, according
to Gillian and Gillian (1954), society is the biggest grouping in which mutual
customs, traditions, attitudes and feeling of togetherness are functioning.

Topic 3
Society and Media
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the terms media and mass media;
2. Explain theories on society and media; and
3. Describe the relations between society and media.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
TOPIC 3 SOCIETY AND MEDIA DEFINITION OF MEDIA
 What is media? Media is a tool or best referred to as the medium to send
messages to a group of receivers or targeted groups. So, what is mass media? Mass
media refers to the medium of communication such as newspapers, radio or
television. It also includes billboards, films, manuscripts, cinema, magazines,
mails, telephone and so forth. These are also known as traditional media.
Modern media or new media is an interactive way of communicating through the
Internet which also includes various types of social media such as Facebook,
WeChat, WhatsApp, Twitter and Instagram. Mass media is designed to reach the
mass of the people. According to Ryan and Wentworth (1999), the term 'mass'
refers to the audience of the media.

 THEORIES OF SOCIETY
Theory is a systematic way of expressing a person's thought or idea as part of a
discipline of knowledge. Theory is a basic fundamental for researcher(s) to
conduct a study of information to produce or expand knowledge in an academic
discipline. A theory is constructed using variables (dependent and independent)
focusing on the scope or concept of the researcher's study. The following subtopics
will look at the different theories related to society.
3.1
3.2
1. Assemble in a group. Identify what you share in common to form
a society. Name your society. Explain what your society is about.
2. Which social media are you most dependent on and why?

ACTIVITY 3.1
3.2.1 Functionalism
Figure 3.1: Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Source: http://cdarmangeat.blogspot.my/2015/04/bibliographie-de-la-division-sexuelle.html

Functionalism as propagated by Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) is an approach that
focuses on social equilibrium. If there is a change or an introduction of new
elements within a society, the community tries to be flexible and adjustable to
adapt itself to the changes so that society will remain functional and be able to
survive with the change. This effort gets adjusted with the changes (if any) which
require cooperation from all members of the affected society. We can liken this to
the scientific system of a food cycle in living creatures, where humans eat fish to
survive and fish eat weeds to survive in the ecosystem. Every person plays a
certain function within society.

3.2.2 Theories during the Age of Enlightenment

I have always thought the actions of men the best interpreters of their thoughts.

John Locke
Enlightenment philosophers cherish explanation a cause, science, religious
tolerance a and what they call 'natural rights' a life, liberty, and property. These
thinkers want to enlighten and improve human conditions.

John Locke (1632-1704) viewed human nature in an optimistic political approach.
He believed in the equality of all individuals, male and female, in the concept of
nature, and that humans have a right to autonomy and freedom.
John Locke believed that each person rationally pursues happiness and pleasure.
Locke considered women to have 'natural differences' from men, one that
justified domination of women by men. While property rights were an extremely
important individuality of male rights he did not believe that this could be
extended to women a thus denying women equality because of what Locke
regarded as the 'natural difference' between men and women.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712a1778) is best known for the concepts of social contract
and the state of nature. He stated that 'Man is born free; and everywhere he is in
chains' (Zeitlin, 1997). Rousseau (see Figure 3.2) began with an optimistic view of
human nature, that men are born perfect, that men are equal and have sympathy
with one another. He believed that people are generally isolated in a state of
nature, but with the development of cooperation, society begins to develop, and it
is society that creates inequality and war.

Figure 3.2: Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712a1778)
Source: http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/5d.htm

Rousseau argued that moral and political inequalities are purely conventional in
origin. He was one of the earliest ideologists to discuss 'inequality in society' and
argued that change could occur in a way that would overcome some of the
inequalities. This is what he termed the social contract, whereby the individual is
absorbed into the common, general will and without losing his own will.

 THEORIES OF MEDIA
In this subtopic, we will further explore two other theories or concept that is
believed to be closely related to society and media. In order to analyse the link
between media and children, youth groups or society as a whole, in a more
meaningful manner, we would need to initially understand that the link is
complex and that none of them exists in a vacuum.

3.3.1 Media and the Public Sphere
Habermasism is a poststructuralist approach made popular by Jürgen Habermas
(1929), focusing on the relation between media and the public sphere. Habermas
(see Figure 3.3) defines the public sphere as a virtual or imaginary community
which does not necessarily exist in any identifiable space. In its ideal form, the
public sphere is 'made up of private people gathered together as a public and
articulating the needs of society with the state' (Media Studies, 2007). Starting
from the 1830s, political powers influenced the middle-class. Bourgeois became
known as the key factor that weakened the public sphere and flattened the printed
mass media by existence and participation of public relations and advertising
which Habermas also referred to as political tactics in buying consumers over
media.

1. Among the three philosophers discussed, which two do you think
differed the most? Why?
2. Work in groups of three. Pick one philosopher for each group. Ask
each group to search for more information about the chosen
philosopher. Discuss their thoughts and approaches with the rest
of your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 3.2

Figure 3.3: Jürgen Habermas (1929apresent)
Source: https://www.citelighter.com/philosophy/
philosophy/knowledgecards/jurgen-habermas
The Internet today perhaps would best be described as the new public sphere
(which is also an important essential of modern polity) where people all over the
world use as a medium to express and share thoughts, news, and information with
the mutual community (Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani, 2009).

3.3.2 Dependency Theory
According to this theory, society or communities are dependent on the media. This
theory is a contribution to the 'uses and gratification theory' by Katz, Blumler and
Gurevitch (1974). Figure 3.4 shows the dependency model by Sandra Ball-Rokeach
and Melvin DeFleur (1976). The model shows the relationship between media,
society and audience; and its effects on the audience's cognitive, affective and
behavioural patterns.

Figure 3.4: Dependency model
Source: Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976)

According to Littlejohn and Foss (2005), the following two key factors contribute
to audience dependency towards media:
(a) Media usage fulfil audience needs; and
(b) Social stability.
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) further discuss the first factor by explaining that
you will be more dependent on media that meets a number of needs than on media
that satisfies just one need. Media can serve a number of functions, such as
monitoring government activities, reporting news, enabling you to keep in touch
with friends and providing entertainment. On the other hand, the second factor
describes how the reliance on media will increase when social change and conflict
are high. For example, during the Arab Spring, people were more dependent on
social media such as smartphones, Twitter, Facebook and e-mail to get more
information about events, protests, as well as demonstrations and later mobilising
revolutionary sentiment. Having more audience dependent on any media will
increase the influence that media has over the audience.

Go online and conduct research on the dependency theory in the media
industry. Explain the impact of media on cognitive, effective and
behavioural effects using the theory.

ACTIVITY 3.3

? Society and media complement each other.
? Communities depend on media technologies to get information and
knowledge.
? Media technology has now become a necessity in the daily lives of people all
over the world. Media is used as tools for people to spread and share what they
know as well.
? Theory is constructed using variables to focus on the area of study by a
researcher.
? Functionalism focuses on social equilibrium. Communities will try to be
flexible and adjustable to adapt to new changes in society so that they remain
functional and able to survive with change.
? John Locke had an optimistic political approach to human nature in that he
believed all individuals were equal and had a right to autonomy and freedom.
? Rousseau was one the first ideologists to discuss inequality in society. 'Social
contract' was the term he used to explain how individuals would be absorbed
into the common general will without losing their own will.
? Theories of media include Habermasism and the dependency theory.
? Public sphere is defined as a virtual or imaginary community which does not
necessarily exist in any identifiable space.
? The dependency theory focuses on the relationship between media, society
and audience. It also explores the effects of these factors on an audience's
cognitive, affective and behavioural patterns.
? Media usage and social stability are the two key factors that contribute to
audience dependency on media.

Dependency theory
Equality
Functionalism
Habermasism
Mass media
Media usage
Modern media
Natural rights
Political inequalities
Public sphere
Traditional media

Ball-Rokeach, S., & DeFleur, M. (1976). Theories of mass communication (3rd ed.).
New York, NY: Longman.
Constitutional Rights Foundation. (2004). Constitutional rights foundation, bill of
rights in Action: Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, and Rosseau on government.
Retrieved from http://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-20-2-
c-hobbes-locke-montesquieu-and-rousseau-on-government.html
Gillian, J. L., & Gillian, J. P. (1954). Cultural sociology. New York, NJ: Macmillan.
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and gratifications research.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.
Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2005). Theories of human communication
(8th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Thomson Wadsworth.
McIver, R. M., & Page, C. H. (1961). Society: An introductory analysis. London,
England: Macmillan.
Media Studies. (2007). Jurgen Habermas and the Pulic Sphere. Retrieved from
http://www.media-studies.ca/articles/habermas.htm

Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani. (2009). The public sphere and media politics in
Malaysia. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars.
Ryan, J., & Wentworth, W. M. (1999). Media and society: The production of culture
in the mass media. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Zeitlin, I. (1997). Ideology and development of sociology theory (6th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

13 TOPIC 5 CULTURES MASS CULTURE

13 TOPIC 5 CULTURES MASS CULTURE
? INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about the concepts of mass culture, popular culture,
subculture, counterculture and folk culture and be able to recognise the differences
between each of these concepts.
We live in a modern society where technology plays a vital role in our daily lives.
The nature of the media is capable of delivering popular culture to our doorsteps.
Although media helps in cultivating the knowledge of culture, we also need to
understand the history of culture and how various cultures were developed in our
society.

? Cultures
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the concept of mass culture;
2. Differentiate between mass culture and popular culture;
3. Discuss the concept of subculture and counterculture; and
4. Explain the concept of folk culture.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
It is undeniable in today's world that we are evolving around a mass
communication system that makes it possible for mass culture to reach the
overwhelming majority of society. Mass culture is defined as a set of cultural
values and ideas that arise from common exposure of a population to the same
cultural activities, communication media, music, art, and so forth. The emergence
of modern technologies such as electronic media and the Internet plays a
significant role in supporting the mass cultural advancement.
The development of mass culture has been made possible because of the
urbanisation process, the industrial revolution and the rapid development of mass
communication. Mass culture is disseminated to individuals with the help of mass
media, and not merely dependent upon day to day and face-to-face interactions
with each other. In other words, mass culture reflects a culture of mass produced
for mass consumption. Some examples of mass cultures are as follows:
(a) The usage of computer in the workplace;
(b) Sending electronic mail (e-mail) instead of the traditional snail mail; and
(c) Social network websites as a tool of information dissemination.


 POPULAR CULTURE
The term popular culture is often mistaken to be the synonym of mass culture.
Although both terms have a lot in common, they are not interchangeable.
these terms (...) have a lot in common, but there are also many differences. Their
meanings partially overlap, and are practically different. Their common
denominator is a large number of recipients.
Marian Golka, 2008
5.1
5.2
What type of mass culture do you encounter in your environment?
Discuss with your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 5.1

Popular culture, or sometimes called pop culture, is the vernacular culture that
prevails in a modern society. The content of pop culture is determined in large part
by industries that distribute cultural material. It is also spread via direct contact,
and not only via technical means. Additionally, pop culture features feedback.
Mass culture is distinguished by its links with unified content which are designed
to reach as many recipients as possible while pop culture is more diversified and
often pertains to niche content without much chance of reaching a broad audience.
Nonetheless, pop culture is heavily influenced by the mass media and the ideas
permeate the daily lives of society. The following are a few categories of the most
common pop culture:
(a) Entertainment (movies, music, television, etc.);
(b) Sports;
(c) News;
(d) Politics;
(e) Fashion; and
(f) Technology.

5.2.1 Industry Reproductions
Most of the time, popular culture is linked to certain mass products from the industry. Undoubtedly, popular culture is constantly changing and is specific to
place and time. Popular culture often acts like social behaviour where a small group of people may have strong interests in an area of which the mainstream
popular culture is partially aware. It is undeniable that profit-oriented companies take this opportunity to produce and sell pop culture goods and services to
maximise their own profits. Figure 5.1 illustrates an example of such profits in selling pop culture goods and services.

Figure 5.1: Launching of the World's biggest angry birds
playground at Low Yat Plaza, Kuala Lumpur
Source: http://www.liveatpc.com/malaysians-break-guinness-world-record/

1. Discuss the effects of popular culture on members of your society.
2. Explain the importance of popular culture in your daily life.
3. How does popular culture affect individuals?
4. Name a few types of popular cultures that you know of.
Share your findings with your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 5.2

 SUBCULTURE
Most of the time, subcultures are derived from a group of people within a culture who differentiate themselves from the larger culture to which they belong and
own a unique identification. This particular group of people possesses different ideologies, usually in fashion and music preferences. Some of the subcultures
flourish merely because of peer pressure and the need among youth to belong.

According to Hebdige (2002), in his book Subculture: The Meaning of Style, subculture is a subversion of normalcy. It can be perceived as negative because of
its criticism of the dominant societal standards. In addition, subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and
allow them the opportunity to develop a sense of identity. Figure 5.2 shows a short cartoon strip on subcultures.

Figure 5.2: Short cartoon strip on subcultures

5.3.1 List of Subcultures
Subcultures develop merely because people want to be different, whether in a certain form of music, fashion, visual arts, dance, literature, films, and so forth.
Some of the subcultures practised in Malaysia are as follows:

(a) Punk Head
 Punk started in England in the early 1970s and is believed to have started in Malaysia around the same time. The punk cultures are mostly about the inyour-face
attitude, rebellion, anti-society fashion statement and post-hippie idealism. The images usually associated with punk are strange Mohawk hairstyle, black cargo pants, shirts with slogans or logos of bands, patches
and khaki bag packs. For punk, age is not a barrier as the member can be someone as young as a teenager or as old as a 40 year old and above. Many
of them commit to the punk attitude even after they finish school and it seems to be an outlet for the young to let out their angst and rebellion streak.
Punk music is a type of music genre that is very famous in the UK and the US as well as in Malaysia, where bands such as Sex Pistols, The Clash, The
Police are widely accepted. Famous well-known punk individuals in Malaysia like Joe Kidd from the legendary punk rock band, Carburetor Dung
is well-known in the local punk and the underground music scene. There are more males than females involved in punk culture and this is mostly due to
the tough, wild and aggressive belief, style and way of doing things.

(b) Skinhead
Skinhead culture began to develop in the 1960s and its roots can be traced back to the working class youths in Britain. Its influence can be seen in
fashion and music. The image synonymous with skinheads is mostly shaven head and working class clothing such as Dr MartenÊs boots, suspenders,
ankle length jeans and aggressive shirt design. Music is a vital part of skinhead culture; the identity of Skinhead is innately linked to reggae music
due to the black immigrants and culture. Skinhead is a popular target for recruitment by the radical rights movement because of their violence
tendency and patriotic nationalist views. In Malaysia, their influence can be felt on the music scene with skinhead bands like Street Rebel, Oi! and ACAB.
While these bands mostly adopt the original idea of skinhead, they reject the racist influence that began in the late 1970s and 80s of right wing attitudes in
Britain. Skinheads in Malaysia are mostly Malay Muslims and they believe that skinhead is only a way of life.

(c) Hip Hop
Hip hop started in the US as a form of expression by discriminated African American youth. The hip hop culture usually comes from low-economy
areas such as the Bronx in New York, US. The hip hop culture uses music as the main mechanism to voice their opinion on the social, political and
economic reality of their lives. It reflects the downtrodden reality of the African American group. There are four main elements in the hip hop
cultures which are rapping, D Jing, break dancing and graffiti painting. The member of the hip hop culture can be acknowledged as those who wear
baggy clothes such as shirts and pants; they also wear brand logo shirt, snapback caps like hip hop celebrities Jay-Z, Kanye West, Snoop Dogg and
Drake. In Malaysia, the influence of hip hop can be traced back to the 1980s with break dancing. It is widely known that the film Azura starring Jamal
Abdillah and Fauziah Ahmad Daud show a break dancing scene. In terms of music, hip hop started around 1989 with a group called Krash Kozz. After
that, a number of hip hop influenced local groups started to emerge such as 4U2C, KRU, NICO and Poetic Ammo. However, it was a group called Too
Phat that really had a breakthrough in the local scene that made Malaysian society accept hip hop culture especially among youth.

(d) Heavy Metal
Heavy metal culture developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s in both the US and the UK. They are also sometimes known as metalheads, headbangers,
thrasher and also Hessian. They are known to wear items such as denim or leather jackets that are decorated with patches or logo of metal group names.
Characteristics of this subculture are mostly male dominated with masculine charisma and usually from the adolescent age group. The ideology of this
culture is usually pertaining to the pervasive alienation which they carry within them in the price and defiance of courage to expose the lies and the
cruelty of the world from their eyes. Their embrace of the ideology of alienation is of particular interest because of what it insinuates about the
experience of growing up as an adolescent in modern times. Famous bands such as Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath and The Who perform song with harsh,
dark sound with themes involving alienation and anger. There is also music with a brighter and lighter sound with themes involving angry love, lost love
and partying. The recurring themes within all music are violence, angst, anger and also sadness. The music usually starts with head banging, rocking
their body or head in a back and forth motion according to the rhythm of the music. This is to show that they are enjoying the music and are moved by it.

(e) Gothic
Gothic is a subculture that comes from Germany and England since the medieval era. However, in modern times, countries such as Japan adopt the
culture and change it to become more updated and colourful. Individuals in the Gothic subculture are known to be anti-fashion and also tend to do things
in a reverse manner. In Gothic culture, they believe that the scarier you look, the more Gothic you are. For instance, people outside the Gothic culture will
normally dress in colourful clothing; however, Gothic individuals will usually use dull colours, especially black. It is normal for them to use black
clothing that is extreme in nature like bondage items coupled with unusual hair styles and body piercing. The same can also be said about attracting
attention. Most people would like to look pretty to attract attention, but Gothic will do scary make up for the same reason. Usually, individuals
would want to be left alone, but at the same time, also want to be seen by the society. Gothic culture usually attracts people going through a tough time in
school with feelings of alienation, thus wanting to express themselves to show their feeling of pain, sorrow and dejection. Gothics tend to show
themselves as being depressed with a sullen and withdrawn expression in public; however their attitude changes to a carefree and happier mood when
amongst each other.

(f) Skater
Also known as 'Sk8r' and 'Sk8er'. The influence of skateboarding in today's modern culture is immense as can be seen in their influence on fashion, music
and even mannerism such as the way someone talks. There are no specific rules and mentality. This subculture champions independence and free
thinking in addition to attracting many creative people to skate. As there are no specific rules and teams, they are free to do their own thing according to
their own wants. Skaters usually wear certain styles of clothes such as flat sole tennis shoes from brands such as Converse, Supra or Vans, casual
graphic shirt, snapback cap and tight pants. Although their style may vary, they also try to wear things that are suitable and yearn to be accepted among
other skaters. Famous brands such as Billabong and Quick Silver are prominent examples of this subculture. The attitudes of a skater would
usually reflect the era they skate. The most popular cities with skaters are Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver and Barcelona. As it gains acceptance
from society, it can be seen in many forms of media such as in Disney movies, video games and music videos. Popular video game that features the
legendary skateboarder Tony Hawk is widely played around the world. In Malaysia, skateboarding is also famous with BMX and Extreme Games.
Furthermore, Malaysia has hosted many events such as the famous Asian XGames where skateboarders from across Asia compete with each other.

(g) Cosplay
Cosplay is believed to have begun in the 1930s in North America with the introduction of sci-fi conventions. It was firstly known as costuming. However, cosplay is different from dressing-up for Halloween. The most
obvious difference when an individual is cosplaying is the complete immersion of the individual as a character. It is not just wearing a costume,
but rather to completely embody the traits of a character such as in the way they walk and talk with gestures and attitude that is unique to their favourite
characters. In Japan, cosplayers would re-enact their favourite scene from a manga (Japanese comic books) which adds further excitement to cosplay
conventions. It is believed that the term cosplay was invented by combining the word „costume‰ and „play‰ by a Japanese reporter, Nobuyuki Takahasi
after he attended the Worldcon in Los Angeles. In Japan, districts such as Harajuku and Shibuya are famous meeting places for cosplay enthusiasts. In
Malaysia, there are the PopCon and AniManGaki which are annual events which fuel the culture. Their origin can be traced back to Sun-U Anime Club
by Sunway University College. This culture is accepted around the world because many people share the love of their favourite manga by eagerly
dressing up as their favourite character. Many of them invested a huge amount of money, time and labour in creating the perfect cosplay.

(h) Gamer
The culture of gaming mostly starts from self-taught gamers who usually play games in their own homes with a game console. They are usually seen
as couch potatoes who like to waste time and be unproductive. However, with the introduction of online gaming, there are shifts in the gaming
industry. It is now one of the biggest industries in the world and evolving very rapidly. It began to acquire more prominence in the last 10 years, as
gamers in online communities started to share and create their own games. The birth of thousands of online forums for famous games such as DOTA
(Defense of the Ancients) and LOL (League of Legends) created gamers that are known worldwide who want to share their victorious wins. These e-sport
players make millions by playing against each other in an e-sport competition. In Malaysia, famous e-sport gamers such as ChuaN, Mushi and
Ohaiyo have made a career out of playing games as they usually earn a hefty income. There are also plenty of courses that teach almost all the aspects of
games such as game development courses. These days, many institutions such as Kolej Damansara Utama, or commonly known as KDU University
College, Multimedia University (MMU) and Lim Kok Wing University offer many varieties of courses pertaining to gaming.

1. Explain what you understand by subculture.
2. What are the differences between popular culture and subculture?
3. What are the different characteristics of skin heads and punks?

SELF-CHECK 5.1
COUNTERCULTURE
It (the counterculture) was an attempt to rebel against the values our parents had pushed on us. We were trying to get back to touching and relating and
living. Lisa Law, 1985

Law was an American photographer and filmmaker best known for her photographs of the counterculture era. If we were to trace its history, the concept
of counterculture is generally understood to be a spontaneous rebellion against the stiff conservatism of the post-World War II era. It is also associated with
unconventional appearance, music, drugs, communitarian experiments and sexual liberation. These are the hallmarks of the 1960s counterculture whose
members were white, middle-class, young Americans. Counterculture refers to a way of living among any group of people whose beliefs,
values, styles and attitudes differ from the prevailing culture. It began with the hippie movement in the late 1960s and 1970s. It typically involves criticism or
rejection of the current powerful institution with an accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. The alternative subcultures that we are experiencing in
today's society revert back to the counterculture. Figure 5.3 shows some examples of popular counterculture movements in the 1960s and 1970s.

Figure 5.3: A celebration of the counterculture movement in California
Source: http://americanhistory.si.edu

FOLK CULTURE
Folk culture, occasionally known as local culture refers to the way of life based on the idea of society sharing experiences and having mutual obligations on a local environment. It emphasises primarily on traditions practised by small, homogeneous, rural groups that live as a community in certain geographical locations. Most of the time, folk culture is handed down to the next generation in order to preserve the cultural tradition. 5.5.1 Preserved Elements of Folk Culture
There are several elements and examples of folk culture that we can witness today in Malaysia. The following are some example of these preserved elements.

(a) Architecture

The Design of Minangkabau Houses Bahauddin, Hardono, Abdullah and Maliki (2012) define Minangkabau
houses as houses that are different from other ethnic group's traditional houses. They are easily recognised by their unique features such as the concave roof design that is similar to buffalo horns (see Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4: A traditional Minangkabau house
Source: https://sg.news.yahoo.com/5-biggest-misconceptions-indonesia-155628108.html

(b) Music

Most Notable as the Chinese Pipa and Flute Pipa is a four-stringed flute with 30 frets and has a pear-shape body. Its
history dates back at least 2,000 years age. The few types of pipa include Liuqin, Sanxian and Ruan.
The Chinese flute usually combines western polyphony with Chinese melodies and scales. Its music mostly has influence from Hong Kong, Taiwan
and China. Examples of the Chinese flute include Dizi and Xiao. Most are made from bamboo.

(c) Dance

Joget and Zapin
Both the Joget and Zapin are widely known as forms of Malay dance that usually portray the culture of the Malays.
Joget which is also known as Ronggeng is believed to be introduced in Malacca during the early 16th century. The fast paced famous dance can be
usually seen performed at cultural festivals, weddings and many other social functions.
Zapin, is believed to have started alongside the spread of Islam in the 15th century. It was introduced by the Arab traders and missionaries from Yemen.

(d) Clothing
The following are some examples of clothing that are preserved from folk
culture.

(i) Indian Sari
Sari is known worldwide as traditional clothing worn by Indian women. The sari is usually worn by women whereas men would
usually wear the Kurta. Sari is usually five to six yards long and will be paired with a blouse or choli. The sari wraps around the body and the
pallu which is the printed end will be draped over the left shoulder.

(ii) Chinese Samfoo and Cheong Sam
Samfoo or samfu is the Chinese term for everyday attire. It comprises two pieces of clothing with the upper garment called Sam (shirt or
blouse) and Fu (pair of trousers). The cheong sam is a traditional long dress worn by Chinese women. It
originates from a tight-fitting costume that was usually worn by the wives and daughters of aristocrats during the Ching Dynasty. It is
buttoned at the neck with slits down both sides of the skirt. The traditional Cheong Sam reaches down to the ankles and has short
sleeves.

(iii) Malay Songket
Malay songket is a type of fabric (see Figure 5.5). Songket motifs and colours in the early years would usually be an indicator of the status and
position of the wearer. Songket used to be worn only by royalty and the aristocrats. Songket is made by weaving threads using traditional loom
or Kek to weave classic design with motif and embellishment. The process is very challenging as it involves intricate designs and detail. The
process of weaving has to be calculated perfectly to create a perfect piece of songket.

Figure 5.5: Malay songket
Source: http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/05/20/weaving-his-way-tosuccess-taking-pride-in-his-craft-hafsin-only-produces-the-finest-songket/

Name a few of the folk cultures that you know. What is so special about them? Share your thoughts in the online forum.

ACTIVITY 5.3
? Mass culture and popular culture are not interchangeable.
? Mass culture is a set of cultural values and ideas that arise from common
exposure of a population.
? Urbanisation, industrial revolution and rapid development of mass
communication have made development of mass culture possible.
? Popular culture is also known as pop culture and is largely affected by
industries that distribute cultural materials.
? Subculture is derived from popular culture itself.
? Some subcultures develop due to people wanting to be different.
? Common types of subculture being practised in Malaysia are punk head, skinhead, hip hop, heavy metal, gothic, skater, cosplay and gamer.
? Counterculture used to be associated with the rebellion culture.
? Counterculture refers to a way of life among any group of people whose beliefs, values, styles and attitudes differ from the prevailing culture.
? Folk culture is inherited from the older generation and emphasises on tradition.
? Some elements of folk culture that are preserved in Malaysia include traditional architecture, music, dance and clothing.

Counterculture
Folk culture
Mass culture
Popular culture
Subculture
Tradition
Bahauddin, A., Hardono, S., Abdullah, A., & Maliki, N. Z. (2012). The Minangkabau
house: Architectural and culture elements. WIT Transactions on Ecology and
the Environment, 165.
Golka, M. (2008). Sociology of culture. Warsaw, Poland: Scientific Publishing
Scholar.
Hebdige, D. (2002). Subculture: The meaning of style (2nd ed.). London, England:
Routledge.

13 TOPIC 6 CULTURE AND INDUSTRY

TOPIC 6 CULTURE AND INDUSTRY

? INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the relationship between the institutions of mass media and political economy. It seeks to paint the background of Malaysia's media ownership
and its link to the political institution and explains how this relationship influences the culture and industry of todayÊs society.

 DEFINITIONS
To have a better understanding and grasp of the topic, we will first look at the
definitions of political economy and mass media to ensure that we can differentiate
between the two.

Topic 6 Culture and Industry
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Elaborate the concept of political economy;
2. Explain the concept of mass media;
3. Discuss the relationship between mass media and political economy; and
4. Describe the historical background of media ownership in Malaysia.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
6.1.1 Definition of Political Economy
The Dictionary of Modern Economics (Horton, Ripley & Schnapper, 1948) defined
political economy as „the theory and practice of economic affairs‰. Political
economy is generally applied to matters of cost, surplus and distribution. It is
mostly viewed as a collective and social concern. Power and authority within a
society (namely, politics) are often associated with the entity's economic ability.
6.1.2 Definition of Mass Media
A medium is the channel through which a message travels from the source to the
receiver. Media is the plural form of medium. Mass media are channels used for
mass communication such as television, radio, newspapers and the Internet.
Dominick (2007) explained that „mass media includes the people, policies,
organisation and the technology that go into the production and distribution of
mass communication‰.
Therefore, to understand the relationship between political economy and mass
media is to understand how the authorities with economic capabilities control
processes, production and ownership of mass media.

 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MEDIA
Studies on political economy can be looked at from many perspectives. However,
this topic will highlight the political economy of media.
Political economy of media refers to studies on „how the media are structured,
controlled and how they operate‰, largely so by political authority and the rich
elites of society. The idea of media as the „free press‰ must be weighed in with
factors such as the economic sustainability of a media organisation, the news
sources of the organisation and also ownership of the media.

Define mass media.

SELF-CHECK 6.1

6.2.1 Public Media
The inception of mass media in each country therefore has often been viewed in
tandem with the political development. Political control is often more obvious
within the public broadcast media in comparison with private media. Hallin and
Mancini (2004) distinguished three models for the governance of public
broadcasting which are the government or polarised pluralist model; the
professional or liberal model; and the parliamentary or proportional representation
model. Each of these models is described in further detail in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Models in governance of public broadcasting
Source: Hallin and Mancini (2004)

6.2.2 Private Media
The privatised media are not really free from political control as privatised media
need commercialisation for their sustainability. Private media are driven by
market needs and demands, therefore creating a more audience-oriented content.
The private media however are bound by the country's law and regulations much
like the public media. The act of balancing the needs of the market and the
authority is constantly viewed as one of the challenges of the mass media.

 MASS MEDIA
Mass media are the channels of mass communication. Mass media transmit
messages from a source to many receivers and it can be from many sources to
many receivers as well. Generally, mass media include newspapers, radio,
television and the online media. However, Dominick (2007) emphasised that mass
media not only comprise the mechanical devices that transmit and store the
message, but also encompass the institutions that use the machines to transmit
messages. That includes the media organisation, the policies, the people and the
technologies.

6.3.1 Traditional versus Digital
Mass media can be divided into traditional mass media and the digital mass
media, including online. Dominick (2007) listed the characteristics of the
traditional mass media as follows:
(a) It is produced by a complex and formal organisation;
(b) It has multiple gatekeepers;
(c) It needs a great deal of money to operate;
(d) It exists to make profit; and
(e) It is highly competitive.

The existence of the Internet and also mobile devices has created a different kind
of channel for mass communication. E-mails, social networks, hand phone chat
applications and other new forms of mass communication are fast developing in
recent years. The online or other forms of new mass media offer everyone a chance
to be a mass communicator. The Internet brought down the cost of mass
communication to a level where everyone can afford to be the transmitter and the
receiver.

Name five countries that fit into each model of the media system given
by Hallin and Mancini (2004). Pick one country and list down five
characteristics of the media system practised.
Share your findings in the online forum.

ACTIVITY 6.1
The online media have completely different characteristics such as the following:
(a) It can be produced by an individual;
(b) It can bypass gatekeepers;
(c) It is affordable;
(d) The motivation may not necessarily be to make profit; and
(e) For many of the online media, competition is not a factor.
As mass media continue to evolve, few trends are taking place. Firstly, there is
convergence within the media as well as intermedia. The audience have more
control of the media. This also leads to fragmentation of audiences. Media mobility
is also an emerging trend of the mass media where media can now be accessed and
also used anywhere at anytime.

 BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP
In Malaysia, the history of mass media can be traced to as early as 1921 with the
coming of radio to Malaya. In 1921, an electrical engineer from the Johor
Government, A.L Birch, brought the first radio set into the country. He then
established the Johore Wireless Association and commenced broadcasting using a
one megahertz radio signal with a wavelength of 300 metres. That was followed
by the establishment of a similar association in Penang and the Malayan Wireless
Association in Kuala Lumpur.

6.4.1 Media Ownership and Control
The media in Malaysia started before Independence as a tool for the British colonials
to disseminate information to the people. After Malaysia was formed in 1963, the
change in the nation's media identity was obvious with the radio tagline, „Inilah
Radio Malaysia‰. Television was introduced later that year with the governmentowned
channel, Radio Television Malaysia (RTM). Privatisation of television
channels only happened in 1984 when Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad (STMB)
was given the license to operate TV3 by the government. Many television channels
came up along the way but Media Prima Berhad (established in 2003) went on to
monopolise the free-to-air television channels namely TV3, NTV7, 8TV and TV9.

Media Prima Berhad also has its share of some of the mainstream print media.
On the other hand, Astro became the most successful subscription based television
after the failure of MegaTV, the first subscription-based television channel. Today,
Astro has more than 170 channels including some in-house produced channels.
A summary of broadcast media ownership in Malaysia up to 2012 is shown in

Figure 6.2: Development of broadcasting companies up to 2012 in Malaysia
Source: Malaysia Communication and Multimedia Commission (2012)
The following summarises various important views of media ownership in
Malaysia:
(a) There are only a few media conglomerates which own many of the media in
Malaysia;
(b) Malaysia has a balance of public mass media by the government and more
privatised ones such as Astro; and
(c) The media in Malaysia, however, is said to be strongly connected to the
ruling party. Ownership of the mass media is directly or indirectly related to
political affiliation.

6.4.2 Legal and Regulatory Development in Malaysia
In terms of the laws and regulations of media, the Malaysian broadcast media is
said to be one that is marred by strong political control (Nain, 1996). The
mainstream media is no longer the guardian of freedom of speech, but rather is
the mouthpiece of the government. The defence by the government is that the
freedom given to media must be practised with responsibility.

Malaysia has a few media regulatory bodies, namely, the Malaysian
Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC), Malaysia Film
Censorship Board (LPF) and also Communications and Multimedia Content
Forum (CMCF). These regulatory bodies play different roles but they complement
each other in regulating the media in Malaysia. A brief summary of the
development of laws and regulations in Malaysia is shown in Figure 6.3.
.
Figure 6.3: Development of laws and regulations in Malaysia
Therefore, the online media is seen to be the leveraging ground as there are relatively
less control and regulations for the online media. The emergence of the online media
is deemed to give more freedom of expression than the traditional media.

1. Read three articles that describe the impact of the Internet on
freedom of speech.
(a) Compare the three articles and highlight their main points.
(b) What is your opinion of media control in Malaysia?
2. Conduct research on one media conglomerate in Malaysia and
describe its mission, vision and ideology.
3. Draw out the organisational chart of one media conglomerate in
Malaysia.
Share your findings with your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 6.2
'
6.4.3 Media Ownership: Global Scenario
There have been many issues across the globe over matters relating to media
ownership. This has sparked concern over the rise of strong oligopolies where
ownership and market is within the hands of a few firms.
Within the global scenario, some of the big firms own a strong share of the market.
For example, Time Warner owns Warners Bros, AOL and CW, while Disney owns
Disney, ABC and also various theme parks. News Corp owns the various Fox
channels and newspapers across the globes. These are among a few examples of
global media under the ownership of only a few media conglomerates. When the
media are controlled by the elite few, the following problems may arise:
(a) Independence of the Editorial Team
There is a possibility that journalists will not write and publish certain
stories, especially those pertaining to negative matters relating to the parent
company or its subsidiaries as this may cause bad press for them. This raises
the question of freedom of the press.
(b) Lack of Diversity
Information provided from only one view point across various media will
lead to one sided opinions and lack of representation in news reporting.
(c) Profit Orientated
Corporations maybe in a position where what they say is determined by who
their sponsors are and also based on the best interests of their sponsors. This
is to ensure that their sponsors will keep on financing the running of their
media organisations.
1. Explain the models used in governance of public broadcasting.
2. Distinguish between traditional and digital media.
3. What are the regulatory bodies of media in Malaysia?
.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
'
Read the following article about media ownership in France and answer
the following questions:
(a) Explain the current state of media ownership in France.
(b) What is the impact of the problems mentioned in the article?
(c) Compare the scenario between France and Malaysia.
Media Ownership at the Heart of Problems Facing the French Press
Roy Greenslade
24 September 2014

Despite the French government's generous subsidies to
newspapers, the country's press is in serious trouble, according to a
lengthy appraisal by the US Nieman Foundation. Its 3,500-word report,
Plus ça change, considers the deepening problems of papers that are said
to have failed to rise to the digital challenge, such as Libération („a
wreck‰), Le Monde („newsroom management in disarray‰) and Le
Figaro (covering politics is „complicated‰ by its ownership).
That final point is explored in some depth by the report's author.
All the leading papers have wealthy owners with large corporate
interests that some critics believe could affect editorial output. For
example, the heads of two phone operating companies have big stakes
in two of the national dailies. Patrick Drahi, a Franco-Israeli telecom
executive who lives in Switzerland with a business based in
Luxembourg, became Libération's largest shareholder in June. Xavier
Niel, who runs France's fastest growing telecommunications firm, has
invested millions of euro in Le Monde along with Lazard banker
Matthieu Pigasse and Pierre Bergé, the business partner of the late
fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent. They have also acquired the
largest, but troubled, national newsweekly, Nouvel Observateur.

ACTIVITY 6.3
'
Then there is Serge Dassault, a French senator and the main
shareholder of France's biggest private aerospace and defence concern,
who owns Socpresse, publisher of Le Figaro. Dassault has been the
subject of judicial inquiries about alleged vote-buying. Nieman reports:
„When the allegations first surfaced last fall, they were big news
everywhere a except in Figaro‰. Bernard Arnault a chief executive of
luxury goods maker LVMH a controls Les Echos, which is France's
principal business newspaper.
But journalism online appears to be alive and well. An
investigative news site, Mediapart, turns a healthy profit because it has
attracted many thousands of subscribers who appreciate its combative
reporting. Its founder, EdwyPlenel, is renowned for his revelations of
high-level misbehaviour. Mediapart took off after its 2010 story about
the political and financial scandal involving France's richest woman,
Liliane Bettencourt.
So what about those subsidies? The Nieman report lists them:
„The French state every year shells out about $540m
(£330m) in direct funding to privately owned
newspapers and magazines, and a further $1bn
(£610m) or so in indirect aid, including a specially
reduced sales tax for publications and income tax
breaks for all 37,000 French journalists with an official
press card...‰ The aim is to ensure a continuing
pluralism of the press, and the money helps to keep
afloat a number of publications that would otherwise
have long since died, including the communist party
paper L'Humanité'.

Incidentally, the report also reveals that the French government
cancelled $6m (£3.6m) in debt owed to the state by L'Humanité.
Merveilleux!
Source:
https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2014/sep/24/
france-mediabusiness

? Political economy is strongly related to the media in terms of production and
processes of information.
? Three models in governance of public broadcasting are as follows:
? Government or polarised pluralist model;
? Professional or liberal model; and
? Parliamentary or proportional representation model.
? Private media are driven by market needs and demands, thereby creating a
more audience-oriented content.
? Mass media can be divided into traditional and digital/online media.
? Malaysia's media system is strongly linked to the political institution.
? Malaysia's media regulatory bodies include the Malaysian Communication
and Multimedia Commission (MCMC); Malaysia Film Censorship Board
(LPF); and also Communications and Multimedia Content Forum (CMCF).
? Online media seem to have more freedom of expression than traditional media.
? Problems of having global media under the ownership of only a few
conglomerates include independence of the editorial team, lack of diversity
and profit orientation.

Digital media
Mass communication
Mass media
Media ownership
Political economy
Regulatory bodies
Traditional media

Dominick, J. R. (2007). The dynamics of mass communications: Media in the digital
age. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004).Comparing media systems: Three models of
media and politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Horton, B. J., Ripley, J., & Schnapper, M. B. (1948).Dictionary of modern economics.
Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press.
Malaysia Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). (2012). Industry
Performance Report 2012. Retrieved from https://www.gov.my/
skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/IPR_-2012.pdf
Nain, Z. (1996). The impact of the international market place on the organization
of Malaysian television. In D. French & M. Richards (Eds.), Contemporary
television: Eastern perspectives. New Delhi, India: Sage.

13 Topic 8 Representations

13 Topic 8 Representations
? INTRODUCTION
This topic focuses on the issue of representation. Representation deals with how
certain groups assign meanings to certain items. Representation also involves
issues related to how a certain cultural group is being seen and perceived and how
their images are being portrayed in the media. Media representation can be seen
as the way media shows and portrays people in a particular group, or community
and also their experiences. This topic focuses on the issue of identity and the
different types of identity. Identity can be at a personal level and at the same time
maintaining a group or cultural identity. Lastly, this topic explores what it means
to be a citizen of a democratic country and how this relates to the issue of
representations of identity.

Topic 8 Representations
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of cultural representations;
2. Describe the meaning and types of identities; and
3. Discuss the relationship between citizenship and democracy.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This subtopic explores the concept of media representation of certain cultures and
groups in societies. It explores whether the media representations are real or
whether they have played roles in building perceptions of these groups.
Representation has been defined by Hall (1997) as „using language to say something
meaningful about, or to represent the world meaningfully, to other people‰. Hall
(1997) further stated that representation is very important where „meaning is
produced and exchanged between members of a culture‰.
In terms of cultural representation, different items have different values to people of
different cultures. For example, pictures and paintings carry specific meanings and
representations to different cultural groups. In the teaching of feng shui in Chinese
culture, the pictures or paintings that they put in their homes represent more than
just decorations. For example, some individuals may consider water paintings to
represent life's journey, finances and professional career; these are placed
strategically in their homes for good fortune.
Hall (1997) further described two systems of representations. First is the system
where we have a mental definition of items, objects or people that we have seen.
This forms the basis of how we relate to the world. The second process involves
more of a conceptualisation process. The conceptualisation process may differ
based on our personal experience or even based on where we live. This creates a
process of building a perception where one may select, organise and interpret the
object based on a conceptualisation process. For example, one's culture plays a
strong role in defining certain concepts such as war and democracy.

8.1.1 Theories of Representation
There are three approaches to how meaning is represented through language.
Table 8.1 discusses these approaches in further detail.
Table 8.1: Approaches to Representation of Meaning
Type Description Example
Reflective
approach
The meaning of the object lies
in the object itself.
„A rose is a rose is a rose is a rose‰
a a famous line from Gertrude
SteinÊs poem, meaning often things
can be interpreted by what they
are.
Intentional
approach
The meaning of a certain object
lies in the intention of the
speaker.
In Malay culture, during the
engagement process, the speaker
may use contextual meaning of
words in expressing their intention.
For example, „we would like to
pluck a flower in your garden‰
means we would like to have our
son marry your daughter.
Constructionist
approach
Meanings of objects are all
constructed using a system of
representation, using signs and
symbols. It reduces the material
meaning to an object but focuses
on the constructed meaning. The
meaning is on the symbolic
function of the product.
The feng shui painting scenario
provided earlier.

 MEDIA REPRESENTATION
Media representation focuses on the role of media in depicting and portraying
certain cultural groups, communities and culture. It may also play a role in
portraying certain political ideologies or even values within a society. In a way it
raises the question whether media reporting or representations are exactly the
reality of life or do they in a way create new realities?

Look at some items around your room. Are you able to recognise the
items? How are you able to recognise them? Try to break down your
thought process as to how you are able to identify the items. Share your
experience in the online forum.

ACTIVITY 8.1

8.2.1 Representation of Culture
Media plays a strong role in influencing and shaping the perceptions of
individuals. Media is a platform where people learn about others from different
cultures. For example, when watching television, one learns about another culture
from news programmes, dramas, documentaries, cartoons, and so forth.
Individuals also base their understanding on what they read in the newspapers or
on information obtained online. The media plays a stronger role especially when
one has no direct contact with other cultures.
Some argue that certain groups are misrepresented in online media. Said (1997) in
his book Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See
the Rest of the World, discussed how media has portrayed Muslims around the
world. He stated that there is a relationship between knowledge and power in which
those who control knowledge, will control power. Thus, media owners are powerful
in the cultural representation of selected groups in the media. Subsequent to
September 11, 2001 there have been many media reports, views and comments,
albeit negative descriptions, about Muslims and Islam across the world, associating
the religion and followers of the faith with fundamentalism and terrorism.
Other groups have also encountered representation issues in the media. For
example, the image of women has also been the target of media scrutiny. What
depicts beauty has been defined by many womenÊs magazines. Disney's
representation of the leading characters have also been an issue where there is a
stronger need for women to be more independent and empowered.
Other than that, the coverage of news when it comes to certain religion, ethnics,
global or local issues can also be seen as a form of media representations. As an
audience, what we actually see, hear and read in any means of media is a welltailored
and framed product of the producers, gatekeepers and media personnel.
These behind-the-scene processes are fitted for certain news for the audience to see
and believe. The end product of news that the audience received has also been
mediated by countless layers of saturations before it is presented, trimmed neatly
to the mass audience. What is chosen and presented as news has already been
narrowed down. Thus, the actual reality of the world is askew and what is released
is what is represented and mediated by the media. For example, the media
coverage on election, sexual assaults victims and perpetrators, and environmental
issues and many more.

 IDENTITIES
Castell (1997) describes identities as „sources of meaning for the actors, and by
themselves, constructed through a process of individuation. /Identities can also be
originated from dominant institutions; they become identities only when and if
social actors internalise them, and construct their meanings around this
internalisation‰. Castell (2004) further describes identity as peopleÊs source of
meaning and experience where individuals are required to not only organise their
meanings and thoughts in life but also the role they play and how they may function.
Liu, Volcic and Gallois (2011) described identity as „each individualÊs particular
way of identifying himself or herself within specific cultural contexts‰. Identity
can be defined by religion, gender, class, race, ethnicity political orientation, social
group, occupation and geographic region. Figure 8.1 shows the two different
categories of identity.

Figure 8.1: Personal and social identity

Go online to a local newspaper website. Click on the international section.
Look through the news and see how certain individuals or groups are being
portrayed in that newspaper. Give your comments in the online forum.

ACTIVITY 8.2

As shown in Figure 8.1, there are personal identities and social identities. The
personal identity is related to attributes of an individual self, in a way that one
defines himself or herself. Social identity is how being part of a group requires an
individual to project a certain form of identity. It could be in the form of cultural
or ethnic identity, part of a religious or social class group or even being part of a
professional membership.

Jansson (2008) explained that the concept of identity deals with the relation
between self and society or self and the other. Identity can be understood as the
situation or condition of being oneself and not others. However, a person might
take in the identity of other people as their own in order to create an identity that
only they understand and that can also be accepted by society.

8.3.1 What is Identity?
Identity can also be defined as something that we can see as the unique
characteristics of a person or the qualities and beliefs of a person that can be used
to distinguish a person from another. However, some might feel that the identity
that they have might be rejected by society. Thus, some may try to occupy or adopt
a more acceptable identity for their society, family and colleague.
For example, Hayati Abdul Karim (2014) mentioned that the way youth construct
their identity depends a lot on their daily life, who their friends are, what their
social activities and daily life are like, as well as the relationship of the youth
between their parents and friends.

Thompson (as cited in Hayati Abdul Karim, 2014), says that the construction of
identity nowadays is very much influenced by the media. The self that we identify
as our identity is a result of experience and exposure from the foreign influence
which comes from the global television programmes that is easily accessible
through many means of media. The local audiencesÊ exposure to foreign content
through the media has created an amalgamation of identity. Furthermore,
Thompson (as cited in Hayati Abdul Karim, 2014), affirmed that the reason behind
cultivation of self-identity from resources of the media is due to the weakening of
local cultures. This has become the main factor why foreign media has great
influence on the construction of identity.
Lily El Ferawati Rofil, Md Azalanshah Md Syed and Azizah Hamzah (2015), point
out that the role of media technology especially in the construction of identity is
immense. Especially in the concept introduced by Anderson (2006) who defined
imagined community as „a concept that explained the idea that the construction
of identity is very much influenced by the media‰.

8.3.2 Conceptualisation of Cultural Identity
Cultural identity is defined by Ting-Toomey and Chung (2012) as the „emotional
significance that we attach to our sense of belonging or affiliation with the larger
culture‰. It is also important to understand the concept of cultural identity salience
which focuses on the strength of the relationship that one has with one's group.
A person has a low cultural identity salience if his or her attachment to his or her
cultural group is weak and vice versa. The level of attachment relates to how one
is willing to practise the culture, norms and values of the group.
People discover their specific cultural identity when they co-exist within a
multicultural society. It begins from our early stages of development with our
religious upbringing, the neighbourhood that we live in, the friends we have.
Family is usually the first group of people that you identify with culturally. For
example, these are the people with whom we first learn how to behave, know what
is socially acceptable and what sorts of non-verbal communication to use. We also
learn about our cultural identity through the mass media. At the same time, we
also learn about other cultural identities through the mass media, which may
construct and shape our perceptions of certain cultures.

8.3.3 Conceptualisation of Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity relates to the origins of the person. It goes back to the roots of the
personÊs ancestors. For example, ethnicity can be defined based on oneÊs race,
religion, nationality or even language (Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2012).
Ethnic identity relates a great deal on an individualÊs country of origin. However,
with migration and mobility of society, it is becoming more difficult to study
where one originates from. For example, African Americans and European
Americans may find difficulty tracing their original roots as they themselves are
products of a mixed group of communities.
However, ethnicity also incorporates a sense of belonging and identification with
the greater group. It is more subjective as it finds the links to and similarities with
the forefathers. We can infer about individuals based on their ethnic values. This can
be based on people's traits in terms of cultural dimension. For example, Asian
Americans tend to uphold a more collectivistic form of society in contrast with the
White American and African American who tend to believe more in individualism.
Individualism embraces idea about individuality and personal attainment as
opposed to collectivistic form where importance is put on the needs and goals of a
group. The relationship between each member of a group is emphasised as a vital
link in a person's identity which is connected to the collectivistic form. Furthermore, the individualism form emphasises on self-reliance, independence and also freedom
to act in the way one believes, making decision and choices individually as
individualistic identity is of utmost importance for them.

 CITIZENSHIP AND DEMOCRACY
Citizenship is an interesting concept as it combines the traits of both individualistic
and collectivistic cultures. Democracy is a form of ideology that originated in
Greece over 2,000 years ago. Democracy means rule by the people. It places
emphasis on the importance of an individual as the core basis of the nation.
8.4.1 Citizenship
Citizenship can be individualistic as it focuses on the rights, liberties and freedom
of the individual; and it can also be collectivistic as citizenship is communal, where
you exercise your citizenship by becoming a member of a certain group, in this
context a particular nation state.


1. Name a few factors that are important in the construction of
identity?
2. How does the media play a role in the construction of identity?
3. Explain the concept of cultural identity.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What are your views on the impact of foreign media on our local
identity in Malaysia?
2. Discuss examples of media that have influence on your daily life.

ACTIVITY 8.3

Table 8.2 briefly describes the different concepts of citizenship.

Table 8.2: Different Concepts of Citizenship
Liberal Civic Republican
? Focus on economy.
? Participation in economy such as
being tax payers, free to engage in
business and obeying the law.
? Pursuit of self interest.
? May lead to extreme individualism
where there will be lacklustre public
spirit.
? Focus on politics.
? Participation in democracy and focus
is on the greater goal of the people.
? Activities relate to the public sphere.
? There will be the opportunist group
who may not perform duties as
citizens.
Source: Adapted from Faulks (2000)

8.4.2 Democracy
In democracy, representatives are selected based on a true and fair election, the
use of the Constitution as a sovereign understanding of a country and upholding
the concept of freedom and equality.
Magruder and McClenaghan (2005) described the American concept of democracy
in the following basic notions:
(a) Recognition of the fundamental worth and dignity of every person;
(b) Respect for the equality of all people;
(c) Faith in majority rule and an insistence upon minority rights;
(d) Acceptance of the necessity of compromise; and
(e) Insistence upon the widest possible degree of individual freedom.
The US is a country that follows the Federal Republic system, where the President,
the Congress and the Court work together in accordance to their Constitution.
Different countries have different systems that reflect their own countryÊs history
and views on how to approach democracy in their own way that would be suitable
for the their own country.

8.4.3 Democracy: Malaysian Context
In Malaysia, we practise Parliamentary Democracy with Constitutional Monarchy
where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is our head of the state and the Prime Minister
is the head of the government. Moreover, our Parliamentary Democracy system is
divided into three parts which is the Legislative, Judiciary and Executive system.
We also practise democracy based on the Federation systems where it is stated that
all the states in Malaysia are combined as one country. Malaysia is then headed by
the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who is chosen from among the nine state rulers in the
country. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is also the head of Islamic Religion, customs
and traditions of the majority race in Malaysia, namely, the Malays.
Malaysia's Parliament consists of the following three components to represent the
people of Malaysia:
(a) The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King);
(b) Dewan Negara (House of Senate); and
(c) Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives).
The Malaysian Parliament holds onto power for five years from the first day of its
meeting after Election Day. Every Malaysian citizen aged 21 years and above can
vote every five years.

1. Explain the difference between cultural and media representation.
2. What is the difference between cultural and ethnic identity?
3. What are some of the basic principles of democracy?

SELF-CHECK 8.2

? Cultural representations of certain communities in the media have been
criticised as they may not necessarily depict reality.
? Different items may have different values to people of different cultures.
? There are two systems of representation:
- When items, objects or people are defined mentally by what an individual
has seen; and
- Involves a conceptualisation process that is based on an individualÊs
personal experience.
? There are three theories of representation:
- Reflective approach;
- Intentional approach; and
- Constructionist approach.
? Media plays a strong role in influencing and shaping perceptions of
individuals. Some groups of people are misrepresented in online media.
? There are two categories of identity, namely, personal identity and social
identity.
? Personal identity is related to a psychological context.
? Social identity consists of group membership that an individual is in.
? Ethnic identity relates to the origin of a person. However, with migration and
ease of mobility, determining where an individual originates from can be
difficult.
? Identity is defined as the unique characteristics of a person or the qualities and
beliefs of an individual that can be used to distinguish one individual from
another.

? Foreign media has a great influence on an individualÊs identity.
? There are differences between the conceptualisation of cultural and ethnic
identities.
? Individualism embraces the idea of individuality and personal attainment,
whereas collectivism puts emphasis on the needs and goals of a group.
? Citizenship is a concept which can be both individualistic and collectivistic.
? Different concepts of citizenship include liberal and civic republican.
? Citizens play a strong role in the success of a democracy.
? Malaysia practises a Parliamentary Democracy with a Constitutional
Monarchy where the Yang-di-Pertuan Agong is the Paramount Ruler or the
head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

Citizenship
Civic republican
Constructionist approach
Cultural identity
Cultural representation
Ethnic identity
Intentional approach
Liberal
Media representation
Personal identity
Reflective approach
Representation
Social identity

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spread of nationalism. London, England: Verso.
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A theoretical blueprint. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
Faulks, K. (2000). Citizenship: Key ideas. London, England: Routledge.
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cultural identity. Intexto, 1(5), 1a31.
Liu, S., Volcic, Z., & Gallois, C. (2011). Introducing intercultural communication:
Global cultures and contexts. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Lily El Ferawati Rofil, Md Azalanshah Md Syed, & Azizah, Hamzah. (2015). „Jadi
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Malaysia. Jurnal Komunikasi, 31(1), 41a58.
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Needham, MA: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Said, E. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we
see the rest of the world. London, England. Vintage.
Stein, G. (1922). Geography and plays. Boston, MA: The Four Seas Company.
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