Introduction Communication Sem 3-6-8

INTRODUCTION
You have spent much time in gathering the important information and
organising them in a pattern deemed most appropriate to be delivered to your
listeners. Additionally, to help the audience follow your thoughts, you have also
prepared some audio-visual aids to be used in your presentation. The big day is
drawing nearer and you start to be worried. What should you do? The remaining
several days should be used to practice your presentation. As the wise saying
goes „Practice makes perfect‰; you should systematically plan your rehearsal. So,
how do you go about it?
Topic
6
Delivering a
Speech
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective ways of practicing a speech delivery prior to
actual presentation;
2. Explain vital elements in voice control in speech making;
3. Identify and use appropriate body language in speech making;
4. Present a speech effectively; and
5. Identify and use a public announcement system and audio-visual
aids effectively in a speech presentation.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 47
PRACTICE
Practice is essential in every performance, including stage performances such as
singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments, sports performances, and
also public speaking. Unfortunately, many speakers do not practice their
presentation prior to the actual delivery. This makes their speeches less than
perfect with blunders here and there. Small mistakes sometimes are not
noticeable by the audience, but bigger ones will spoil the presentation. If the
speaker himself is unsure of his words, how is he going to convince the
audience? Therefore, it is imperative for the speaker to make himself familiar
with his substance, organisation and presentation approaches before sharing it
with the audience. The only way to be familiar with his speech is to practice it.
The more he practices, the more confident he will feel.
A speaker who wants to deliver a perfect speech must seriously practice the
presentation several times prior to the actual day. The question is how frequent
must he practice? Some say between three and six times is sufficient. If it is fewer
than three times, the speaker will not be able to identify his weaknesses. If more
than six times, the speaker will be over confident. Thus, in short, one should keep
on practicing until he feels comfortable with his presentation and makes a very
limited number of small mistakes that are unnoticeable by the audience.
What is the correct way to practice? It is suggested that while practicing, try to
memorise the ideas, not the text of your speech. The biggest mistake made by
most novice speakers is trying to remember everything that they wrote in the
speech text, word for word. And this is not an easy task.
Then, prepare note cards to for every idea memorised. The speaker must practice
using the same note cards that he is going to use in the actual delivery. Do not
make mistakes by using manuscript while practicing and then replacing them
with note cards in the actual delivery. This will create a lot of problem since the
speaker is not familiar with the note cards. Thus, use the same note cards, while
practicing and in the actual delivery.
Push yourself through your words, starting from your practice sessions. This will
make your expressions more meaningful and livelier, and not merely reading out
something from a newspaper to your audience. By pushing through your words,
you will be more enthusiastic in your presentation and this will produce natural
voice control and meaningful body movements.
Obviously, a speaker does not need any special practice for his body language.
This is because body movements should come naturally as a result of his
enthusiasm and understanding of his own words. Premeditated body
6.1
4 8 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
movements are unnatural and fake. If possible, record your practice sessions. The
best is to use a video recorder but if this is unavailable, audio recording is the
second choice. After your delivery, play back your recorded sessions and criticise
yourself. This will help you to identify your strong points and also your mistakes
that need swift attention. Another alternative is to practice in front of a pseudo
audience. Pseudo audiences are those who will not be attending your actual
presentation as the audience. Hence, your close friends, spouse, and committee
members can serve as a pseudo audience. Get them to attend your practice
sessions, observe your presentation and give some comments, focusing on your
strengths and weaknesses. Some speakers even practice in front of a big mirror in
order to see their own presentation.
Finally, time yourself while practicing. Be sure you are able to conclude your
speech in an allotted time. Do not exceed the time allocated to you and
conversely do not finish too soon. If you far exceed the time limit, try to cut short
some elaborations, merge some points, or reduce the number of your sub points.
If you finish your presentation too early, perhaps your information is insufficient.
You would need to search for more information, add more examples, or
elaborate more of your points.
PREPARING NOTE CARDS
It has been mentioned earlier that a speaker should use note cards, not texts in
his presentations. In addition, the speaker should familiarise himself with the
note cards while practicing his speeches. The same cards must be use in the
actual speech presentation. Why do we recommend cards instead of sheets of
paper? The obvious reason is that cards are easier to manage. They are heavier
than paper and are not easily blown off by the wind if you are to present your
speech in a hall equipped only with fans. Additionally, cards can be handled in
one hand even though there is no rostrum prepared for you, while the other
hand can be used for gestures.
6.2
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Why is it important to practice your speech before the actual
event?
2. Explain steps to be considered in practicing your speech.
3. Practice the presentation of the speech that you have planned
in the previous activities.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 49
Figure 6.1: Example of note cards
How do these note cards look like? What is the correct size of the cards? A
speaker can choose either to use a stack of 5‰ X 7‰ or 3‰ X 5‰ cards. Nonetheless,
5‰ X 7‰ cards are more recommended since you do not have to cramp everything
on one small space. You can write bigger in bigger font on the cards and this will
make your writing more visible and easier to read even if you have to stand and
deliver from a dim corner of a stage.
What should be written on the cards? Avoid using note cards to replicate your
speech texts. That is to say, do not write too many things on one page of your
card. Remember, psychologically the more you write, the more you tend to read.
Eventually, your speech will no more be extemporaneous, as you will be reading
from your small texts. Therefore, only write your main ideas and sub-points on
your note cards. Be sure your writing is big and clear enough so that they are
readable. Besides that, your cards can also contain some important facts and
quotations that need accuracy. It is recommended that you use one card for one
main idea. Thus, if you have four main ideas to be shared with your audience,
you need to prepare and use four note cards. Do not clutter your cards by writing
too many things on it. This will make it difficult to be read. Arrange these cards
according to the main ideas. It is better to number the cards. While delivering
your speech refer to your cards occasionally. At any rate, do not rely too much on
the cards. Figure 6.1 shows the example of note cards.
These cards should be placed on the rostrum. If possible do not hold the cards in
your hands unless there is no rostrum provided.
5 0 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
CONTROLLING YOUR VOICE
Your voice is an important asset for you as a public speaker and a speakersÊ voice
needs to be controlled in order to make his meanings precise.
There are six elements in voice control that need to be mastered by public
speakers. The elements are shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Voice control elements
The explanations are as follows:
(a) Volume
A good speaker must speak loud and clear enough so that every one in the
audience can hear him. Nonetheless, speaking loudly does not mean
shouting at the audience. Shouting at the audience will only irritate them.
Thus, if you are facing a big crowd, use the public announcement system
effectively. At any rate, a speaker can learn to use a correct level of volume
through practice.
6.3
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Prepare your own note cards for the speech that you have
planned in the previous activities.
2. Use these note cards in you practice.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 51
(b) Pitch
Some people refer to pitch as intonation. In speech making, intonation is
very important as it stresses the important parts of the message. Speakers
normally increase their pitch to stress a point. This will create effects on the
audience. Thus, it functions like a bolded word or phrase in written
sentences. Nothing creates boredom more than a monotonous speech.
Therefore, try to use a variety of pitch levels while delivering your points.
This skill definitely needs some training.
(c) Rate
Every language and dialect has its own proper rate of speech. The speech
rate of American English for instance is about 120 words per minute
whereas French is about 140 words per minute. Standard Malay language is
spoken at about 130 words per minute. Nonetheless, this speech rate is
influenced by the mother tongue dialect of the speaker. For example,
Tamils who are used to speaking Tamil at a higher speech rate will also
increase the rate when they speak Malay. A Kelantanese whose dialect is
slower than the standard Malay will speak Malay at a lower rate. However,
an effective speaker will use a variety of speech rates while making his
points. Similar to pitch, different ranges in speech rate will increase the
effectiveness of the speech. Speakers normally embark on their delivery by
using a slower rate, and speeding up a little bit to stress a point. The
speaker later reduces his rate to gather attention and subsequently speeds
up again to stress the next important point. This will go on until the end of
the speech. Similar to other talents, this skill needs training and exposure.
(d) Pauses
Pauses refer to the short breaks in between words, similar to a comma in
written sentences. At times, speakers need to pause to seek an appropriate
word to be said next. Pauses can also help the audience to grasp the
utterances of the speaker. At any rate, the speaker must be aware that
pausing at a wrong place will spoil the sentence, blight the meaning and
thus, fail to get the message across. On the other hand, pauses when used at
appropriate places, will allow the audience to follow ideas easily.
(e) Repetition
Repetition is one of the most popular rhetorical techniques used by most
speakers. Some speakers repeat the same word or phrase several times, yet
some prefer to repeat the word with its synonym. The purpose is to
emphasise the words and to establish cadence. This will consequently
increase the effectiveness of the presentation.
5 2 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
(f) Pronunciation
Pronunciation refers to the correct way of uttering a particular term or
word. It is imperative for a speaker to articulate his words correctly.
Improper or incorrect pronunciation of certain words in a speech will lead
to confusion since the audience may assign different meanings to the
words. Thus, the speaker must learn and practice to pronounce the words
as accurately as possible in order to avoid misunderstanding.
BODY LANGUAGE
Besides voice, body language is another important factor that determines the
success of speech delivery. Sometimes, even before the speaker opens his mouth
to speak, the way he behaves in the function has already ÂsaidÊ something to the
audience. Figure 6.3 below illustrates some aspects of body language that you, as
a speaker, should consider while delivering your speech.
Figure 6.3: Body language in delivering speech
6.4
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. List all the six elements of voice in speech making.
2. Why is it important for a speaker to control his voice in a
speech presentation?
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 53
The explanations are as follows:
(a) Appearance
„Appearance‰ refers to a few things. One of it is your arrival time. A
speaker must be punctual. He should never be late for his speaking
engagement. In fact a speaker should reach the venue at least 15 minutes
ahead of the scheduled time for him to speak. This will give him ample
time to catch his breath, rearrange his note cards, check and recheck the
microphone and audio-visual equipments, and focus his thoughts. A
speaker who arrives late will make the audience wait in vain and
consequently lose their interest in the subject matter. Worse still if the
speaker is invited to talk about time management! No one will listen to him.
Another thing under „appearance‰ is the speakerÊs attire. The speaker must
wear proper clothes that are suitable for the function. Suitability here is
gauged from two perspectives: colour and pattern. Both must be
conservative. Apparently, the colour and the pattern of the speakerÊs
clothes cannot be too striking as this will distract the audienceÊs attention.
(b) Movements
The way the speaker approaches and departs from the speaking position or
rostrum is also important. A speaker should walk confidently towards the
speaking position after he has been invited to deliver the speech. Audience
evaluation towards the speaker starts once the host mention his name. The
audience will observe every step that the speaker takes, from his seat to the
speaking position. Once the speaker finishes his speaking task, he should
walk confidently back to his seat. The audienceÊs evaluation on the speaker
does not end until he gets back to his seat. Thus, a clumsy, inelegant,
panicky, or even an Âover confidentÊ speaker will turn the audience off.
(c) Posture
Next is the speakerÊs posture. The speaker must stand up straight while
delivering his speech. By standing up straight, the speaker looks more
serious in his words and also it will be easier for him to control his voice.
Just imagine a speaker who is leaning onto the lectern while delivering an
important topic. Will you believe him?
(d) Gestures
The speakerÊs hand movements must be coordinated to support his
message. Avoid meaningless gestures. Obviously any hand movements
before your audience must be accurately coordinated to enhance the
meanings of spoken words. Thus, the gestures must be natural, not faked.
Of course, not every word uttered must be supported with gestures.
5 4 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
Gestures are only needed occasionally, on a specific word or phrase to
establish emphasis. If gestures are not necessary, rest both hands on the
lectern.
(e) Facial Expression
Our face is in fact the only part of the body that can portray 33 types of
feelings. Sadness, surprise, love, hate, dislike, disappointment, etc. can only
be depicted by our face. Therefore, if we want the audience to really
understand our message, we need to use our face to amplify the meanings
of our words. Nonetheless, facial expression must be natural. It should be
the product of the speakerÊs passionate endeavour to share the message
with the audience. Never contradict the facial expressions with the spoken
words. This will only leave the audience puzzled.
Since eye contact is part of the facial espression, it is vital in communication
as it tells the audience how confident the speaker is. Speakers who are not
confident will find it hard to convince the audience. Therefore, eye contact
must be established and maintained throughout the entire speech. The
speaker should look at the audience on the right, on the left, in the front
and the back rows. Make the eye contact balanced and not skewed to only
one direction. Let everyone in the audience feel that the speaker is directing
the message at him.
(f) The Use of the Rostrum
The rostrum or lectern is actually a place for speakers to put his note cards
and to rest their hands whenever gestures are not necessary. Never abuse
the rostrum by leaning onto it or even banging it.
USING THE MICROPHONE
The public announcement (PA) system is an essential tool for speakers, especially
before a big crowd or audience. This is particularly true when the speaker needs
to present his speeches in venues with poor acoustics. The system basically
consists of a microphone(s), an amplifier, and speaker(s) (refer to Figure 6.4).
6.5
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Explain the importance of body language in public speaking.
2. Elaborate on the six main aspects in body language.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 55
Figure 6.4: A complete PA system helps in delivering a speech better
There are a few things that need to be understood by speakers when dealing with
the device. Firstly, the speaker must know how to switch on the microphone. The
microphone comes in different models and designs. Some have an on/off switch
on the body and some without. Some come with cables and some are wireless.
Anyhow, as a speaker you need to know whether the microphone is ready to be
used. How do you do this? Never tap or knock the microphone. A trained
speaker will only puff the microphone to make sure it is working well.
Additionally, a speaker must also know how to adjust the volume of the PA
system. The adjustment knob is at the amplifier. The suitable level of the volume
depends on the loudness of the speakerÊs voice, the size of the audience, the size
of the hall or room, the acoustics of the venue, how much noise surrounding the
place, etc. Normally, at important functions, there will be a technician on standby
to assist a speaker. Otherwise you can get the master of ceremonies to help
you with the adjustment. At any rate, a wrongly adjusted volume level will
annoy the audience and thus, interrupt the transfer of meaning between the
speaker and the audience.
Besides that, the speaker must also know how to adjust the height of the
microphone to suit his height. The height of the microphone must always be
below the speakerÊs chin with the tip of the microphone always pointing to the
speakerÊs mouth. This will make it easier for the speaker to speak into the
microphone. Furthermore, the speaker must also adjust the distance between his
mouth and the microphone. The proper distance is approximately six inches.
Never get too close or too far from the microphone. Otherwise, the device will
not function well and this defeats the purpose of using it.
5 6 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
USING AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
Another important tool in speech presentations are the audio-visual aids. In short,
audio-visual aids (AVA) are simply anything that you use in your presentation in
order for you to make your points easier to be imparted to the audience. Since
these equipments are supposed to assist you in your presentation, they should be
used occasionally and should never substitute you as the main presenter. Bear in
mind that the use of AVA is not compulsory. The need to use AVA depends very
much on the topic, the audience and the situation.
The most popular AVA used in public speaking are overhead projectors (OHP)
and transparencies, white boards, flip charts, slide projectors, posters,
photographs, audio compact discs, video compact discs, real objects, models, cut
away view models and power-points (see Figure 6.5). The selection of these
equipments is determined by their availability, and the availability of other
facilities such as electricity, a screen and the speakerÊs skill in handling them
effectively. It is of no use if the speaker prepares wonderful power-points but is
not skillful in incorporating them in his presentation. The AVA will not only fail
to assist the speaker but in fact, may ruin his presentation. Sometimes, AVA that
is too attractive and fascinating will compete with the speaker to get centre stage.
Consequently, the audienceÊs minds are focused on the AVA and the speaker is
left speaking alone.
Accordingly, regardless of whatever type of AVA is being used in the
presentation, the main functions are to assist and facilitate the speaker in getting
his message across to the audience. As the old saying goes, a picture is worth a
thousand words. Hence, showing a picture will help the audience to create vivid
imagery in their minds without having to describe the message with words.
Nevertheless, the speaker needs to practice how to incorporate these AVA in his
presentation so that he will get the best out of them.
6.6
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. Why do you need to use a microphone in your presentation?
2. Explain how to use a microphone effectively.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 57
Figure 6.5 A speaker is using one of the AVA in delivering his speech
HANDLING QUESTIONS
Most speech presentations, especially informative speeches, are followed by a
question and answer (Q&A) session. This session is held in order to provide
opportunities for the audience to seek clarification, to give comments or to air
their opinions on matters pertaining to the subject matter presented. Some
speakers are quite nervous in conducting this session since they regard this
session as yielding opportunities for the audience to attack them. Nonetheless, if
the speaker is well prepared, masters the topic well and knows how to handle
questions, this session is very beneficial to the audience.
First of all, the speaker must listen carefully to the questions directed to him. If
possible, note down the questions on a piece of paper. Never depend on your
ability to memorise the questions, especially when the moderator allows a few
6.7
ACTIVITY 6.4
1. What are the factors that need to be considered in using AVA?
2. Organise the AVA for your presentation based on the topic
that you have prepared in the previous activities.
5 8 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
questions to be accumulated before handing the session over to you to answer.
Try to understand the question, that is, what the member of the audience is
asking and wants to know. Repeat the question if you are unsure.
If you do not understand the question, get the person who asked it to explain
what he means. If the question is too long, divide it into several parts and deal
with them one by one. If possible, relate the answers with your main ideas in the
speech presentation. If the member of the audience is stating his opinion instead
of asking a question, it is your prerogative whether to respond or not. If you
choose to respond, state your stand whether you agree or disagree with the
opinion. If they give you comments, appreciate the comments. If the comments
are true, admit them. If otherwise, explain where the comments are invalid and
unacceptable. If you do not know the answer to some of the questions, admit
your inability to answer. Normally the audience will appreciate your sincerity.
Practice is an inevitable part of speech presentation.
Voice control is a skill that needs to be developed by public speakers.
There are six elements of voice control that a speaker should consider when
delivering a speech: (a) volume, (b) pitch, (c) rate, (d) pauses, (e)
pronunciation, and (f) repetition.
Body language is vital in public speaking since it helps in imparting the
message to the audience.
There are six aspects of body language that a speaker should consider when
delivering a speech: (a) appearance, (b) movements, (c) gestures, (d) posture,
(e) facial expressions, and (f) the use of rostrum.
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Why is the Q&A session important in public speaking?
2. Predict some questions that might arise from your speech that
you are working on. Write down the questions. Try to respond
to each of them.
TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH 59
A good speaker presents his speech from the note cards, not a manuscript or
texts.
A microphone, along with a good PA system is of a great help if used
effectively in a speech.
AVA will assist speakers to get their message across.
The Q&A session is an opportunity for the speaker to explain his main ideas
further to the audience.
Audio-visual aids
Body language
Gestures
Loudness
Microphone
Note cards
Pause
Pitch
Posture
Practice
Pronunciation
Pseudo-audience
Public announcement system
Question and answer session
Repetition
Speech rate
Voice control
Volume
Abdul Mua'ti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. Edisi kedua.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J.W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th. ed.
Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
6 0 TOPIC 6 DELIVERING A SPEECH
Phillips, G.M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O.M and Scott R.L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th. ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.



TOPIC 7
INTRODUCTION
Besides speaking to inform, there are occasions when we need to go beyond
merely giving information to persuading our audience so that they will change
their beliefs, attitudes or actions over certain issues or developments. This kind of
speech requires a different approach in order to create the desired outcomes.
These speeches are called persuasive speeches.
DEFINING A PERSUASIVE SPEECH
As stated earlier in this module, a persuasive speech is a speech presented with
the intention to influence the audience. In other words, the aim of these speeches
is to change the audience. Normally, there are three types of changes targeted by
speakers delivering persuasive speeches:
(a) Changes in beliefs;
(b) Changes in attitudes; and
(c) Changes in actions or behaviours.
7.1
Topic
7
Persuasive
Speeches
ACTIVITY .1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between persuasive and informative speeches,
2. Explain methods of organising materials based on a persuasive
speech structure, and
3. Identify effective techniques of delivering a persuasive speech.
6 2 TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
Some speakers attempt to focus on only one type of change at a time, but there
are instances where speakers try to combine a few types of changes at one go. It
goes without saying that, it is more challenging to convince an audience to
change a few things in one single speech. As a matter of fact, it is much easier to
change someoneÊs belief than his attitude. Similarly, changing an attitude is
easier than changing a behaviour or soliciting action. At any rate, any effort to
change people needs consistency. Thus, it is too ambitious to change an audience
through only one speech. Sometimes, even after listening to a series of speeches,
an audience may still not be convinced to change what they believe in. What
more if we try to change their attitudes and behaviours. These changes demand
more meticulous approaches, taking into consideration the receiversÊ
psychological and sociological factors.
Among examples of persuasive speeches are those delivered during political
campaigns, buy local products campaigns, quit smoking campaigns, anti-drug
abuse campaigns, road safety campaigns, cleanliness campaigns, blood donation
campaigns, etc. Please note that in these campaigns, the speaker aims to change
either the audiencesÊ belief, attitude, or behaviour, or even all three. For example,
in a quit smoking campaign, the speakerÊs intention is to make the audience
believe that smoking is bad for their health. So, the speaker tries to change the
audiencesÊ beliefs from thinking that smoking is harmless to being convinced
that smoking is downright hazardous. Subsequently, the speaker will advance a
step further by attempting to change the audiencesÊ attitude from being fond of
cigarettes to dislike or total aversion. Finally, the speaker will move to the last
step, that is, to change the audiencesÊ behaviour or action, and make them stop
smoking altogether. Nevertheless, please note that it is almost impossible to
achieve the objectives of bringing these changes amongst the audience through
only one single speech.
Obviously, persuasive speeches are one notch harder than informative speeches. In
an informative speech, the objective of the speaker is only to inform the audience
of his subject matter but in a persuasive speech, the speaker does not only inform
but also tries to influence the audience so that they come to an agreement with his
proposal. Besides the examples provided earlier, speeches to inspire, to motivate
and to create awareness are all considered as persuasive speeches. And even sales
speeches, speeches presented in order to influence people to buy certain products
or services are also regarded as from the same category.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Identify a persuasive speech that you have heard before. What do
you think is the objective of the speaker?
TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 63
PERSUASIVE SPEECH FORMAT
There are a few formats that are normally used in structuring a persuasive
speech as shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Persuasive speech formats
The explanations are as follows.
(a) Motivated Sequence Format
In this format, the speech materials are organised based on the motivated
sequence (by Allan H. Monroe). This format is suitable for motivational
speeches, sales pitches, and certain social action campaigns. The format is
shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Motivated Sequence Format of Persuasive Speech
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter
II. BODY
1. Needs or significant problem(s)
2. Proposal of possible solution(s)
III. CONCLUSION
1. Visualisation of success by adopting the proposal
2. Audience to adopt the proposal
7.2
6 4 TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
Please note that in this format, especially in the body of, the speech, the
speaker needs to make his audience feel the need or the problem. Bear in
mind that people will not change until they see the need for them to change.
Thus, the speaker must make the audience realise and admit that they are
facing a problem that needs to be solved or experiencing a need that has to be
filled. This vital part of a persuasive speech must be planned and presented
as clearly as possible, and if necessary, by using audio-visual aids. A
combination of emotional and logical appeals is to be recommended for this.
Once the audience realises the problem they are facing or the needs they are
having, the speaker must now offer them his proposal on how to solve or
satisfy the problem or need. The proposal suggested must be presented in
detail and arranged systematically in order to avoid any ambiguity and
doubt. As a result, the audience will be attracted to consider the proposal.
Incomplete, vague, and illogical proposals will definitely be rejected by the
audience.
Next, in the conclusion, the speaker must play with the audienceÊ
imagination by getting them to visualise the benefits and positive outcomes
of adopting his proposal. These benefits and outcomes must be inline with
the audiencesÊ values. Thus, it is imperative for the speaker to understand
and take into consideration his audiencesÊ sentiments and emotional states.
Values such as dignity, love, happiness, etc. can easily touch their hearts.
Finally, the speaker needs to motivate the audience to adopt his/her
proposal through appeals, challenges, enticements, etc. suitable with the
mood of the presentation and the issue at hand.
(b) Negative-positive Format
This format (see Table 7.2) is not only suitable for sales pitches and
speeches to create awareness, it is also good in situations where the
audience is more educated and are able to contemplate and think deeply
before making a decision.
TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 65
Table 7.2: Negative-positive Format of Persuasive Speech
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter
II. BODY
1. Weaknesses or shortcomings of the issue
2. Strengths or positives of the issue
III. CONCLUSION
1. Motivate audience to adopt the proposal since
the positives outweigh the shortcomings
Through this format, especially in the body of the speech, the speaker
initially presents all the negatives or shortcomings of the issue. Then the
speaker will proceed to discuss the strengths or the positives of his
proposal. Finally, the speaker will motivate the audience to adopt the
proposal after they can see that the strengths or positives outweigh the
shortcomings.
For example, in a speech to persuade mothers to breastfeed their babies, the
speaker tries to persuade his audience to adopt his proposal to practice
breastfeeding. Thus, in the first part of the speech, the speaker provides his
audience with all the disadvantages of feeding babies with formula milk.
For instance, it is costly to buy formula milk, it is difficult to ensure
cleanliness during the preparation, its lack of nutrients as compared to
mothersÊ milk, etc.
Subsequently, the speaker provides the audience with information on the
benefits of using mothersÊ milk. For instance, its richness in nutrients,
vitamins, and colostrum contents required by babies, its cleanliness, its
compatibility in terms of temperature, its ability to foster a close
psychological and emotional relationship between mother and baby, its
ability to act as natural contraceptive, etc.
Lastly, after the audience have been presented with the facts and are made
to know that the strengths outweigh the disadvantages, the speaker must
motivate the audience to adopt his proposal to practice breastfeeding.
6 6 TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
(c) ÂYesterday-today-tomorrowÊ Format.
In this structure, the speaker will take the audience back in time, to visit the
past. Then the speaker will bring the audience back to the current setting.
Lastly, the speaker will try to project what will happen in the future. While
the audience is captivated in the time adventure, the speaker will motivate
them to adopt his proposal.
This particular format is suitable for speeches delivered in order to create
awareness or inspire the audience to take certain action. The format is
shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: ÂYesterday-today-tomorrowÊ Format of Persuasive Speech
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings.
2. Salutations.
3. Attention getter.
II. BODY
1. The situation in the past.
2. Current developments.
3. Projection for the future.
III. CONCLUSION
1. Motivate audience to adopt proposal in order for
the future projection to take place.
For example, the speaker wants to create awareness on the importance of
inculcating patriotism amongst the youths. Firstly, in the body of the
speech the speaker will bring the audience back to the colonial era when the
country was ruled by foreign powers. The speaker will highlight the hard
lives experienced by the people, and how the people suffered from losing
everything that they had including their dignity and self-esteem. The
speaker also revealed the misery faced by those who fought for the freedom
and independence of our country.
Then the speaker brings the audience back to the current situation. The
speaker stresses on the easy lives of todayÊs youths. The speaker also
discusses the meanings of freedom from colonisation to the youths and
how the youths today appreciate independence.
Finally, the speaker tries to help the audience to visualise how meaningless
independence will be if todayÊs youths fail to appreciate it and work hard to
fulfil the demands of self-government. The speaker stresses that carelessness,
TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 67
lack of patriotism and unwillingness to sacrifice to defend the country from
threats, be it political or economic will lead to the country being reoccupied
again in the near future.
DELIVERING A PERSUASIVE SPEECH
Unlike an informative speech, a persuasive speech requires a different method of
presentation. This is due to its main objective to create effects in the audienceÊs
minds that consequently move them to change their beliefs, attitudes or actions.
At least three elements need to be given special attention by persuasive speakers in
order to make their speeches effective. The three elements are shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Elements in delivering persuasive speech
7.3
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Choose a type of persuasive speech to be presented to your
audience.
2. Develop your speech structure based on one of the formats
discussed.
3. Search for your materials and prepare your AVA if necessary.
6 8 TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
(a) Effective Voice Control
One of the strengths a persuasive speaker needs is the ability to control his
voice. A speakerÊs ability to vary his intonation will touch the audienceÊs
hearts besides being able to manipulate certain emotions. Undeniably this
ability requires a certain amount of exposure and training.
(b) Fluency in Language Use or Style
The speakerÊs ability to choose and use appropriate words and terminology
is vital in persuasive speeches. These words are able to touch the audiencesÊ
hearts as well as convey accurate meanings intended by the speaker.
Furthermore, the speakerÊs ability to employ certain rhetorical techniques
well, is always an advantage.
(c) Effective Use of Audio-visual Aids
The used of audio-visual aids for certain topics will boost the effectiveness of
a presentation. This is due to the capability of the equipment to stimulate the
audiencesÊ various senses. Not only are the audience able to listen to the
speakerÊs words but they also are able to see with their own eyes, smell or
even touch with their hands. As a result, the speakers are able to create vivid
imagery in the audiencesÊ minds of the issue being discussed. This will
eventually lead to the audienceÊs willingness to adopt the speakerÊs proposal.
A persuasive speech is a speech presented in order to change the audienceÊs
beliefs, attitudes and actions.
A persuasive speech has a totally different format from the informative speech.
There are three formats normally used in structuring persuasive speeches: a)
motivated sequence format, b) negative-positive format, and c) Âyesterdaytoday-
tomorrowÊ format.
Persuasive speeches require different presentation approaches since it is vital
for speakers to create vivid imagery in the audiencesÊ minds.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Practice your persuasive speech presentation.
2. Present your persuasive speech before your class. Get your
audience to comment. Are they persuaded?
TOPIC 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 69
There are three important elements to consider while delivering a persuasive
speech: a) effective voice control, b) effective use of AVAs, and c) fliency in
language or style.
AVAÊs are necessary to be used for certain topics to help create the effects.
Actions
Attitudes
Beliefs
Inspirational
Motivated sequence
Motivational
Negative-positive format
Persuasive
Rhetorical techniques
Vivid imagery
ÂYesterday-today-tomorrowÊ format
Abdul Mua'ti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. Edisi kedua.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J.W. (2004). Speech Communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th. ed.
Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G.M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O.M and Scott R.L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th. ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.


TOPIC 8
INTRODUCTION
It is normal practice in formal and non-formal organisations to host functions. These
functions are held to serve various purposes pertaining to the nature of the
organisation. In holding these functions, information is disseminated through
speeches. These speeches are unique in the sense that they are structured to address
the objective of the functions. Some examples of speeches delivered at these
functions are speeches by the chairman of the event (usually called the chairmanÊs
remarks), speeches to introduce a speaker, speeches to present an award, speeches of
acceptance by recipients and speeches to officiate formal functions.
Topic
8
Special
Occasion
Speeches
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective ways of preparing speeches for different
occasions;
2. Differentiate between the structures for special occasion speeches
and informative and persuasive speeches; and
3. Arrange materials to form a speech structure suitable for a
particular occasion.
TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES 71
CHAIRMAN’S REMARKS
This speech is very common in formal and informal functions. This is because in
whatever type of functions, there must be a person who leads the event, called
chairman of the occasion. He is the one who is instrumental in organising the
event, according to the planned programme, from beginning to end. To begin the
function, the chairman must first present a brief speech. This speech must be very
brief, just to get the ball rolling. The format of this speech is shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Format of ChairmanÊs Remarks
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter (optional)
II. BODY
1. Welcome guests and audience
2. Introduce the function
a. The name of the function
b. Theme (if any)
c. Objective of the function / expectations
d. Procedure of the function
III. COMMENCEMENT
Introduce and invite the session moderator or presenter
_________________________________________________
IV. CONCLUSION
1. Gratitude
2. Emphasis on the expectations of the function
3. Other announcements (if any)
4. Adjournment
Please note that in the speeches of the chairman of the function, there is a section
called commencement. In this section, the chairman introduces and officially
invites the speaker to the speaking position. Normally in a big and elaborate
function (normally more than one day), the events are divided into several
sessions. For instance, in an academic function such as conferences, working
paper presentations are divided into a few sessions. Each session is chaired by a
session moderator. Thus in such functions, the session moderator will be the one
responsible to introduce and invite the speakers or paper presenters to speak.
The role of the chairman is limited to merely opening the function formally
before handing over the events to the session moderator. It is expected that the
chairman introduces briefly the session moderator, for instance by providing his
8.1
7 2 TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES
name, designation and position. The session moderator will also conduct the
question-answer session and once everything is settled, will hand the
proceedings back to the chairman. The chairman will then conclude the function
and bring it to adjournment.
On the other hand, for simple occasions such as a half a day function, the
chairman will normally conduct the entire event. There is no need for session
moderators to be appointed. The chairman will start the function formally, and
then introduce and invite the speakers or paper presenters to the podium. After
the speech or the presentation, the chairman will conduct the question-answer
session and later conclude and adjourn the event.
INTRODUCING A SPEAKER
More often than not, the chairman of the events or the session moderator will
also be responsible for introducing and inviting the guest speaker or paper
presenter to the podium. In carrying out this task, the chairman or the moderator
is expected to adopt the format as shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Format of Speech to Introduce Speakers
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter (optional)
II. BODY
1. Why this time?
2. Why this audience?
3. Why this subject / topic?
4. Why this speaker?
III. CONCLUSION
1. Introduce and invite the speaker formally
8.2
ACTIVITY 8.1
Your organisation is conducting a two-day seminar on education.
There will be five paper presentation sessions throughout the event.
You have been identified to be the chairman of the event. Prepare a
text that you are going to read when performing your duty as the
chairman.
TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES 73
Please note that in the body of the speech, the chairman should answer four
questions. Each of the questions should be answered in three or four sentences. In
responding to the first question (why this time?), the chairman should try to relate
the issue to be presented with current developments. For the second question (why
this audience?), the chairman should try to show how this issue is relevant to the
audience. Next, for the third question (why this subject or topic?), the chairman
should try to explain to the audience the significance of the issue and why this
particular issue needs to be discussed. For the final question (why this speaker?),
the chairman should briefly provide some personal information regarding the
speaker. This information should explain to the audience what qualifies the
speaker to present the topic. In other words, the chairman should put forward only
the speakerÊs personal information which is relevant to the topic.
In introducing the speaker, the chairman should try his best to set the stage. As a
matter of fact, the success of the function depends very much on the ability of the
chairman to set the stage and manage the situation. Should the chairman fail to
create the mood for the event, he may in fact be ruining the entire function.
More often than not, the chairman is also expected to do a bit of summarising or
summing up once the speaker has ended his speech. This extraction must be very
brief. In doing so, the chairman must emphasise the essence of the entire speech
and not simply reviewing it. For this purpose, the chairman should be able to use
his own words. What matters most is his ability to pick up on the core of the
issue presented and relate that to the audience.
A SPEECH TO PRESENT AN AWARD
This speech is presented in an event organised to honour someone, for example,
a best student, an exemplary worker, or an outstanding citizen, etc. The main aim
of this event is to pay tribute to the recipient. The format of this speech is shown
in Table 8.3.
8.3
ACTIVITY 8.2
You are to introduce a guest speaker invited to deliver a speech in a
function in your organisation. Prepare a text of your speech to
introduce the speaker
7 4 TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES
Table 8.3: A format of Speech to Honour Someone
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter (optional)
II. DISCUSSION
1. State the objectives of the award
2. Brief history of the awarding organization
3. Review past receivers (if any)
4. Brief biodata of the current receiver
5. Information on the award
III. CONCLUSION
1. Presenting the award formally
Nevertheless, a few things need to be considered. For instance, never over- praise
the recipient. In addition, do not over emphasise the value of the award. The
chairman should not mention those who almost won the award, unless there are
prizes for runners up, third position and so on. An award- giving ceremony does
not normally require humour as it is more often a formal and solemn affair.
A SPEECH ON RECEIVING AN AWARD
This type of speech is given by the award or prize recipient. The main aim of the
event is to provide an opportunity for the recipient to express his gratitude to
those who have selected him to win the award. Some recipients are very
emotional on being so fortunate to be selected, and some are speechless.
Nonetheless, bear in mind that this speech should be brief. As a guide, the format
of this speech should be as shown in Table 8.4.
8.4
ACTIVITY 8.3
Your organisation is planning to have an award giving ceremony for
excellent workers next month. You are appointed to run the entire
event. There will be three awards to be given to three recipients for
their top performance throughout 2009. Prepare your text.
TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES 75
Table 8.4: A Format of Speech to Receive an Award
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
II. BODY
1. Express sincere appreciation to the awarding party
2. Thank those who were instrumental in providing
their assistance and cooperation that led to the award
3. Disclose future plans with the award received
III. CONCLUSION
1. Restate briefly your appreciation/gratitude
In a very formal setting and for a very significant award, the recipient can reveal
to the audience the secret of his success or the personal qualities that earned him
the prize. Hopefully this will inspire the audience to work their way up to be the
future recipients of the prestigious award.
A SPEECH TO OFFICIATE
Pomp and ceremony are part and parcel of human civilisation, so that most
occasions call for some degree of formality and procedure. The same goes for the
opening and closing of a formal function. Normally, a distinguished guest of
honour is invited to solemnise an event officially, and along with this comes a
speech. The format of a speech to officiate an event is shown in Table 8.5.
8.5
ACTIVITY 8.4
You are selected as one of the recipients of „The excellent worker
award‰ of your organisation. The great event will be held next
week. You will be given five minutes to deliver a speech after the
award giving. Prepare the text of your speech.
7 6 TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES
Table 8.5: A Format of a Speech to Officiate
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter (optional)
II. BODY
1. Welcome the crowd
2. Introduce the function
a. Name of the function
b. Theme (if any)
c. Objective
d. Procedure
III. CONCLUSION
1. Expectation and prediction of the outcome of the
function
2. Formal statement of official opening
Please remember that this type of speech needs to be brief. There are speakers who
tend to take the opportunity to be long winded, or touch on matters that should be
discussed only by the paper presenters. Sometimes an entire programme needs to
be rescheduled just because the opening speech dragged on into the paper
presentation session. Bear in mind that the main aim of an opening speech is just to
solemnise the function, and is not a key note speech or a major oration.
ACTIVITY 8.5
Your general manager is invited to officiate a conference organised
by your unit. The function will be held in two weeksÊ time. You
have been directed by your immediate boss to prepare a text to be
read by your general manager during the official opening of the
event. Prepare an appropriate speech of suitable length.
TOPIC 8 SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES 77
Speeches delivered at different functions require different structures.
The structure of a speech must be suited to the objective of the function.
A speech should not be long-winded but straight to point to address the
objectives of the function.
Any speech should be prepared carefully by the speaker or the speech writer.
A chairmanÊs remarks
A speech to introduce a speaker
A speech to officiate functions
A speech to present an award
An acceptance speech
Session moderator
Special occasion speeches
Abdul Mua'ti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. Edisi kedua.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J.W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th. ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G.M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O.M and Scott R.L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th. ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.

Introduction Communication Sem 3-1-5

Tooppic11
Introduction
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic you should be able to:1. Identify the definition of communication as used in this module anddifferentiate between the various types of communication processes; 2. List elements in public speaking; 3. Explain basic principles in public speaking; and 4. Differentiate between types of speeches based on the purpose andmethod of delivery.

INTRODUCTION
Communication can be defined as the sharing of meanings between two or more people with one party acting as the source and the other, the receiver. The source here refers to any party that initiates the information whereas the receiver is the target of the transaction. In the information transmission process, the source must be able to choose a suitable channel to carry his message.
2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
In daily interactions, it is not possible for people to avoid communicating with each other. This is especially true since human beings live in an interdependent situation. These interactions are called communication. There are several types of human communication as shown in Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1: Types of communication
The explanation is as follows;
(a) Intrapersonal Communication
This type of communication takes place within an individual. It is considered as the most basic form of communication. Apparently, before a person can communicate with others, he must communicate within himself first. This type of communication involves any thinking, decision making or reflection taking place in a personÊs mind before he transmits his thoughts to other parties.
(b) Interpersonal Communication
This type of communication occurs when an individual communicates with another individual, face to face.
(c) Small Group Communication
This type of communication occurs when a group of individuals interacts with one another. Normally the group consists of between four to twenty members. This number allows each and every member to communicate with other members. Normally the communication centers around a more structured issue. Thus, this kind of communication is generally more objective and more formal than interpersonal communications. Examples of small group communication are group discussions, business meetings and task oriented meetings such as quality control committees.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  3
(d) Public Communication
This type of communication occurs when a source (speaker) delivers his message to a group of receivers (audience). Normally the audience consists of more than twenty individuals. Messages transmitted are very structured, often centering around a predetermined issue or topic. Therefore, the settings for public communication are more formal. Examples of public communication are university lectures, career talks in schools, parliamentary debates, paper presentations in conferences and political speeches in rallies.
ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Public speaking consists of four elements that distinguish it from other forms of human communication. The four elements are shown in Figure 1.2:
Figure 1.2: Public speaking elements
The explanation is as follows.
(a) Speaker
The speaker is the source of the message which consists of meanings to be shared with the members of the audience.
4  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
(b) Speech
The speech is the message that a speaker intends to share with others who make up the members of the audience. It constitutes a topic on a subject matter that is suitable for the intended audience.
(c) Audience
The audience is made up of individuals who have assembled to listen to the speaker. In order to share the meanings of his message, the speaker needs to synchronize them to match his audienceÊs frame of reference or pool of meanings. This would ensure a better understanding of the speech.
(d) Situation
The situation refers to the setting in which the speech is to be delivered. Usually the situation is pre-arranged to enable the speech to be presented to the audience. For instance, a public lecture to be given by an invited speaker at a university needs to have the time, venue and topic planned beforehand.
CANONS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
According to Aristotle in his book The Rhetoric, there are five basic canons that need to be observed and adhered to by anyone who wishes to deliver an effective speech.
Figure 1.3 shows the canons.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  5
Figure 1.3: Canons of public speaking
The explanations are as follows:
(a) Inventio
This refers to the speakerÊs ability to gather information relevant to the topic of presentation. A speaker must put in effort to search for sufficient information to be shared with the audience. The speaker could refer to published materials, attend academic functions, engage himself in discussions, make observations, and view television programmes, and so on.
(b) Dispositio
Apart from gathering information, a speaker must be able to organise the material into a structured speech consisting of three distinct parts, namely the prologue, the body and the epilogue.
(c) Memoria
This canon refers to the speakerÊs ability to understand and master his topic. A person who knows his subject well does not need to memorise every word in the speech.
(d) Elocutio
This canon refers to the speakerÊs ability to choose and use appropriate words or style in his presentation. Avoid the use of jargon and bombastic words. To quote Aristotle, „The best speaker speaks the audiencesÊ language‰.
(e) Pronuntiatio
The fifth canon refers to the speakerÊs skills to deliver his speech. . He must take into consideration elements such as voice control and the use of body language.
6  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEECHES
1.4
Speeches can be classified according to the methods of delivery and purposes.
Figure 1.4 shows the four types of speeches based on the methods of delivery.
Figure 1.4: Types of public speeches
The explanation is as follows:
(a) Impromptu Speeches
This is the most difficult type of speech to deliver because it is presented without prior preparation.
(b) Memorised Speeches
For this type of speech, the speaker memorises his entire speech, just like an actor who memorises his script. The success of this type of speech depends very much on the speakerÊs ability to remember the whole speech. Furthermore, this type of speech is rather rigid and it is difficult to make adjustments in case there are unexpected changes in the speaking situation.
(c) Speeches Read From Texts or Manuscripts
For this type of speech, the speaker reads every word that is written in the text of the speech. This type of speech relies very much on and is limited to everything that is written on the text. Some speakers prepare their own
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  7
texts. Some depend on others to prepare their speeches. These written texts are suitable for presenting facts and accurate details. For instance, in presenting the Budget Speech in parliament, the presenter has no alternative but to read the entire speech.
(d) Extemporaneous Speeches
This type of speech combines some elements from all the three types of speeches discussed earlier. For example, the speaker may read the main ideas, important statements or quotations that need to be presented accurately from his note cards. In addition to that, the speaker memorises how to elaborate these main ideas with simple quotations and examples. Finally, the speaker is able to adjust his presentation spontaneously depending on the audienceÊs reactions and changes in the situation.
Another way of classifying speeches is based on the purpose of presentation as shown in Figure 1.5. There are four types of speeches under this category.
Figure 1.5: Classification of speeches based on purposes
(a) Informative Speeches
In this type of speech, the speaker intends to share some information on a particular topic or issue which will increase the audienceÊs level of knowledge or understanding of it.
(b) Persuasive Speeches
In this type of speech, the speaker aims to influence his audience to agree with his proposition. The intention of the speaker is to change the audienceÊs belief, attitude or behaviour. Thus, speeches during political, social action and commercial campaigns are considered persuasive speeches.
8  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION
(c) Speeches to Entertain
In this type of speech, a speakerÊs purpose is to amuse the audience. Normally these speeches are presented at social functions such as luncheons and dinners.
(d) Special Occasion Speeches
These speeches are presented during specific formal functions. Examples are welcoming and opening speeches for a particular programme or function, a speech to award achievers, a speech after receiving an award, and farewell speeches.

Public speaking is an example of human communication. It has four important elements: (a) speaker, (b) speech, (c) audience, and (d) situation.

In order to speak effectively, one needs to gather information, organise it effectively and remember the flow of ideas. One also has to choose simple but accurate terms to represent the ideas and share them with the audience.

Speeches can be categorised based on the purpose of the speech as well as the method of delivery.

Based on the method of delivery, speeches can be classified into: (a) impromptu speeches, (b) memorised speeches, (c) speeches read from texts/manuscripts, and (d) extemporaneous speeches.

In addition, speeches can be classified into the following based on the purposes: (a) informative speeches, (b) persuasive speeches, (c) entertaining speeches, and (d) special occasion speeches.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION  9
Communication
Extemporaneous speeches
Impromptu speeches
Informative speeches
Interpersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication
Manuscript speeches
Memorised speeches
Persuasive speeches
Public communication
Small group communication
Special occasion speeches
Speeches to entertain
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent oral communication. 8th ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.


TOPIC 2
INTRODUCTION
Stage fright or nervousness is a normal phenomenon faced by most people. It is
an uneasy feeling of anxiety, and fear experienced by those facing an audience.
This phenomenon is also shared by athletes at the starting line and singers before
a performance.
This feeling is particularly acute in novice speakers, causing them to forget their
words, and then unable to proceed with their presentations. The effect is that
some would rather avoid public speaking situations in future. In other words, if
this matter is not dealt with effectively, the successful transfer of messages
between speaker and audience will never take place.
It is perfectly normal to experience stage fright or nervousness at some point in
our lives. A study conducted in the United States several years ago found that
the majority of the respondents who were civil servants stated that speaking
before an audience was their biggest fear in life (Wallechinsky et.al., 1978). Thus,
should you feel a bit nervous prior to your speech presentation, be assured that
you are as normal as everyone else.
Topic
2
Stage Fright
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the causes of stage fright while standing before an
audience to deliver a speech;
2. Identify symptoms of stage fright; and
3. Determine suitable methods of handling stage fright.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 11
PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF STAGE
FRIGHT
Why is stage fright considered as a normal phenomenon? How does this feeling
develop? In order to answer to these questions, we need to understand the
physiological processes that take place whenever a person is facing his/her
audience.
When we put ourselves in front of an audience, whether it is to speak, sing or
participate in a sporting event, we will normally face two important pressures.
Firstly, the desire to succeed, and secondly, that there is no guarantee of such
success. These two pressing situations linger in our minds, causing a feeling of
tension throughout the body. This tense feeling is felt in the brain which sends a
signal to the adrenal gland (Figure 2.1) at the kidneys. Upon receiving the signal,
the adrenal gland will produce a hormone named adrenalin. This hormone is
normally produced when a person faces shock, excitement, fear, nervousness and
so on. Subsequently, the presence of adrenalin in our bodies will trigger the
secretion of insulin in the pancreas. The insulin produced will be involved in the
sugar conversion process whereby sugar (kept in the body as glucose) will be
transformed into glycogen. This process will produce heat and energy.
Figure 2.1: The adrenal glands play a part in the physiological causes of stage fright
2.1
ACTIVITY 2.1
Besides public speaking, list other activities that you think may
trigger the same feeling of nervousness.
1 2 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
The heat produced in our bodies will lead to an increase in body temperature. In
order to reduce this heat, our bodies will perspire. That is why a person feeling
nervous will sweat.
In addition, energy will also be produced excessively in the body. This excess
energy will be sent to the muscles to be stored. The unused energy will
accumulate in the muscles, consequently causing certain limbs to tremble. These
are the typical physiological causes of stage fright experienced by any person
facing an audience.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES OF STAGE
FRIGHT
Besides physiological causes, there are also psychological reasons that may
trigger nervousness in speakers. Unlike the physiological processes that occur in
the speakerÊs body, the psychological factors develop in the mind. Among others,
the factors are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Psychological causes of stage fright
2.2
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Explain what you understand by the term physiology.
2. Elaborate what happens physiologically in a speakerÊs body
when he/she is facing an audience to deliver a speech.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 13
The explanations are as follows:
(a) SpeakerÊs Fear of being Evaluated
Whenever a person feels that he/she is being observed and evaluated,
he/she will be in a stressful situation. This may be due to that personÊs need
for perfectionism. Striving for excellence and perfection will put the person in
a more difficult and critical situation, thus triggering nervousness.
(b) Critical Outcomes of the Speeches
The speaker who is anxious that the success or failure of the speech will
determine his/her future, will definitely feel the pressure. For instance, when
presenting a controversial topic, a speaker will feel anxious throughout the
speech. This is not the same for the speaker who is presenting a normal topic.
The psychological see-saw will naturally generate anxiety and apprehension.
(c) SpeakerÊs Lack of Public Speaking Skills
The novice speaker will feel more nervous due to his unfamiliarity with the
situation. The lack of exposure and not knowing how to react to the audience
may result in an uneasy feeling. This uneasiness will consequently lead to
apprehension.
(d) SpeakerÊs Lack of Knowledge of His/Her Subject
The speaker who has not acquired enough information on a particular topic
but has no choice but to deliver the topic will definitely experience a feeling
of inadequacy and lack of confidence. These feelings will affect his/her
concentration and consequently generate stage fright.
(e) SpeakerÊs Lack of Preparation
A speaker who fails to prepare thoroughly for his/her presentation due to a
lack of time, or a last minute change of topic, or encounters an unfamiliar
speaking situation or equipment, will be saddled with uncertainties. These
uncertainties will definitely lead the speaker to be apprehensive while
facing the audience.
(f) Fear of a Distinguished Audience
A speaker who notices the presence of certain distinguished or respected
individuals will feel uneasy. This is perhaps due to the speakerÊs perception
of the ability of such individuals to evaluate his/her performance. This
feeling will affect his focus on the speech and thus trigger nervousness.
The combination of physiological and psychological factors will compound a
speakerÊs nervousness, especially the novice ones. If the speaker fails to handle
this anxiety effectively, not only is his presentation interrupted, but in extreme
1 4 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
cases the speaker has to quit the presentation without achieving his objectives.
When this happens, the speaker, apparently ruins not only his own credibility
but also the organisation he represents.
SYMPTOMS OF STAGE FRIGHT
After examining the causes of stage fright, it is important for a speaker to
understand its symptoms. The symptoms of stage fright can be divided into
physiological and psychological symptoms. Firstly, let us examine the
physiological symptoms in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Physiological Symptoms of Stage Fright
No. Physiological Symptom Explanation
1. Shivering Speaker shivers due to the production of excess
energy as a result of the bodyÊs sugar conversion
process. This unused excess energy will
accumulate and get stored in the muscles such
as the knees and fingers, causing them to
tremble.
2. Shortness of breath This is due to the lack of oxygen in the speakerÊs
body. In this case, the blood in the body is being
used to transport oxygen to the brain to enable
the speaker to stay awake. This happens when a
person is feeling excited and anxious.
3. Sweating Sweating or perspiration is a bodily reaction to
regulate body temperature and to control the
excess heat generated in the body. Body
temperatures will be higher if extra heat energy
is produced in the sugar conversion process.
2.3
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Explain what you understand by the term psychological.
2. Elaborate what happens psychologically when a speaker faces
an audience to deliver a speech?
3. Differentiate between the psychological and physiological
causes of stage fright.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 15
4. Accelerated heart beat Whenever a person is shocked, excited or
nervous, his body prepares him to be on a
constant state of alertness. Thus, more and more
oxygen is needed to be sent to the brain. The
heart must work extra hard, pumping blood to
transport oxygen to the brain.
5. Dry lips This is probably due to the heat produced in the
body. For some speakers, the increase in body
temperature will lead to dry lips and in some
instances even make them thirsty.
6. Tenseness throughout
the body
This is due to the unequal distribution of blood
and oxygen in the speakerÊs body. Eventually
the failure of the body to regulate this
distribution will confuse the bodyÊs systems.
That is why some speakers feel like vomiting or
urinating while waiting for their turn to speak.
7. Monotonous voice This is due to the speakersÊ inability to control
his intonation.
8. Uncontrollable speech
rate
This is due to the speakerÊs failure to control his
rate of speech. In some cases the nervous
speaker speeds up his speech so he can finish
fast and in other cases a speaker slows down
due to the fear of making any mistake
9. Vocalised pauses This is probably due to the speaker being
momentarily lost for words and searching for a
suitable word to resume his speech. Thus, the
speaker needs to pause and think. In doing so,
he fills the silent pauses with vocals such as
uhmm, arrr, etc.
10. Blackout This happens in extreme cases where the
speaker is too scared, thus putting himself in a
very stressful situation. Apparently the
speakerÊs body fails to function normally and
blood is not sent adequately to the brain.
Consequently the brain cannot function as usual
and as a result, the speaker collapses.
Besides the physiological symptoms, the following psychological symptoms can
also be seen or felt by speakers experiencing speech anxiety. Table 2.2
summarises these psychological symptoms.
1 6 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
Table 2.2: Psychological Symptoms of Stage Fright
No. Psychological Symptom Explanation
1. Fear of facing the audience Knowing that all eyes will be on him, the
speaker is overwhelmed with fear and selfconsciousness.
As he is under observation, he
feels that he cannot afford to make any
mistakes in the presentation.
2. Shyness A nervous speaker will also feel too shy to
stand before the audience or become their
focus of attention. This perhaps is due to his
feelings of inadequacy or uneasiness.
3. Fear of eye-contact A nervous speaker tends to feel that his entire
movement is under close scrutiny of the
audience. Thus, he becomes afraid of looking
at the audience in the eye.
4. Fear of not being able to
remember ideas
The speaker becomes too concerned with
what to say next or that he cannot remember
his lines to the extent it may affect his
presentation. This discomfort will lead to
confusion and loss of focus, which
consequently generates more anxiety.
5. Withdraw In extreme cases, the speaker deliberately
finds excuses to avoid public speaking
situations. They will resort to any endeavour,
including telling lies, if this can help get them
exempted from appearing before an audience.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1. State the differences between psychological and physiological
symptoms of stage fright.
2. Provide three psychological and three physiological
symptoms that you think you will experience whenever you
are delivering a speech.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 17
HANDLING STAGE FRIGHT
After identifying the causes and symptoms of stage fright, let us now look into
the methods of handling the phenomenon. You should understand that
nervousness cannot be eliminated totally. What we can do is merely to control
nervousness or to reduce it to a manageable state where it does not interfere with
the transfer of messages to the audience. Table 2.3 summarises the methods to
handle stage fright.
Table 2.3: Methods to Handle Stage Fright
No. Method Explanation
1. Analyse your audience A speaker who knows his audience is more
capable of synchronising his speech with the
audience. Thus, the speech will easily meet
audience expectations. Once the words of the
speaker manage to be in line with the audienceÊs
needs, it will be much easier to get their agreement
and approval. When a speaker realises that his
words are accepted and approved by the audience,
either through their smiles, nods, or applause, he
will be more enthusiastic and stimulated to resume
his presentation. Eventually he will forget his
anxiety and enjoy the opportunity of sharing his
ideas with the audience.
2. Thorough preparations A thorough preparation is the most important
method of handling nervousness in public
presentations. There is no alternative to thorough
preparations. These preparations include making
the effort to look for adequate materials for the
speech, planning and organising the speech,
identifying the suitable language to be used,
preparing strong arguments to support claims
and systematically rehearsing the delivery. These
preparations will make the speaker familiar with
his speech, enabling him to master the topic. This
will increase the speakerÊs confidence and he will
be more convincing.
2.4
1 8 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
3. Light physical exercises This physical method is similar to warming up
exercises amongst athletes. The light physical
exercises or isometrics will help with the balanced
distribution and circulation of blood in the body.
Additionally, these exercises will also help to
burn the excess energy being stored in the
muscles. This will reduce shivering and
consequently make the speaker physically more
fit and at ease in carrying out his speaking tasks.
4. Deep breathing This is another physical method. Taking a deep
breath will provide enough oxygen to the body.
While feeling nervous, more oxygen is needed in
the brain. Thus, breathing deeply will take in
more oxygen into the body to be distributed to
the brain. This will definitely relax the body and
make the speaker feel at ease. Therefore, it is
always advisable to take a deep breath a couple of
times while waiting for your turn to speak.
5. Focus on the friendly
audience
Upon taking the rostrum or the speaking position,
and before uttering the first word, a speaker
should first look at the audience. At this moment,
the speaker is normally at the peak of his
nervousness. Try to focus on those friendly faces,
those who look and smile at you. By looking and
smiling at them prior to beginning your speech,
you are establishing a rapport with them. This will
psychologically remove any barriers between the
speaker and his audience, eventually removing the
stress of having to stand in front of them.
6. Move around The more a speaker moves around during the
presentation, the more he burns up the excess
energy stored in the body. Thus, the speaker will
feel more relaxed and at ease. Nonetheless, the
movement must be a meaningful one, not merely
walking around on the stage. The speaker should
practice his moves in order to make them relevant
to his verbal presentation.
We have just discussed some effective methods in handling stage fright in public
speaking. A speaker must practice these methods consistently in order to make
them suitable for him. Once the speaker has decided what works for him, he
should be able to control his stage fright effectively in any public speaking
situation.
TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT 19
Stage fright is a normal phenomenon experienced by every speaker.
Stage fright can be controlled or reduced to a level where it does not interfere
with the transfer of messages between the speaker and the audience.
In order to handle stage fright effectively, we must understand its causes and
symptoms, physiologically and psychologically.
A speaker should be able to identify suitable methods to handle stage fright
effectively.
Communication apprehension
Methods of handling stage fright
Nervousness
Physiological causes
Physiological symptoms
Psychological causes
Psychological symptoms
Speech anxiety
Stage fright
ACTIVITY 2.5
1. Explain the psychological methods that can be used in
handling stage fright.
2. Explain the physical methods that can be used in handling
stage fright.
2 0 TOPIC 2 STAGE FRIGHT
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.


TOPIC 3
INTRODUCTION
An analysis of your audience and the situation in which you will be speaking is
vital in speech making. This is because the audience is the target of the speech
and whether or not your objectives are met lies with the audience. Knowing
more about the target group helps the speaker to tailor his speech to their level,
thereby enhancing the audienceÊs understanding of the subject matter. Similarly,
the speechmaker should have some background information of the situation too
so that he is prepared for any eventualities.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Topic
3
Analysing the
Audience,
Event and
Situation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the importance of analysing the audience, situation, and
event prior to a public speech presentation;
2. Identify the techniques of analysing an audience; and
3. List the items to be considered in analysing the speaking situation
and event.
The Prime Minister is delivering a speech to a group of people in a
village. Who do you think are amongst the audience? Explain the
possible situations which may occur during the speech.
2 2 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE
There are two categories of audience characteristics which need to be considered
by a speaker. The first category is made up of demographic characteristics
whereas the second consists of situational characteristics of the audience.
The demographic characteristics are as follows:
(a) AudienceÊs Age
The speaker needs to know in general the age groups of his/her audience.
Will the audience consist of youngsters, school-goers, adolescents, adults,
or senior citizens? This is important since different age groups will require
different approaches in speech preparation especially in matters of style,
organisation, and examples.
(b) AudienceÊs Gender
Will the audience be all male, all female or a mixed group? This is
particularly important since there are specific topics that may be gendersensitive.
Knowing the audienceÊs gender beforehand will allow the
speaker to be better prepared so as not to offend certain parties in the
audience.
(c) AudienceÊs Religious Affiliations
Religion is a sensitive matter, especially in a multi-religious society such as
Malaysia. If we are required to present a speech that will touch on religious
matters, we need to know our audienceÊs religious affiliations. This is
because we cannot afford to offend anyone by commenting negatively on
their beliefs. For example, criticizing or making fun of another personÊs
religious taboos. It is preferable to talk about the universal values shared by
all religious beliefs. .
(d) AudienceÊs Ethnic Backgrounds
Similar to religious beliefs, certain aspects of race and ethnicity are also
sensitive matters. Thus a speaker needs to be extra cautious when speaking
on certain issues pertaining to the above matters. Touching on the positive
aspects of race or ethnicity is more acceptable.
(e) AudienceÊs Occupations
The audienceÊs occupations often determine the level of language, the
suitability of examples and the types of arguments to be used in the speech.
Does the audience consist of those working in private firms or in
government agencies? Are they entrepreneurs or job seekers?
3.1
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 23
(f) AudienceÊs Educational Attainments
Knowing the audienceÊs level of education is vital since it determines their
ability to understand the vocabulary, line of argument and examples used
by the speaker. Thus it is imperative for the speaker to acquire this
information in preparing his speech.
(g) AudienceÊs Political Inclinations or Ideologies
In some societies political ideology is a sensitive matter. Therefore in order
to avoid disparaging any party, it is recommended that the speaker takes
into consideration the political ideology subscribed by his audience. If
possible try to avoid discussing political issues unless the topic revolves
around politics.
The situational characteristics of the audience may differ from one occasion to
another. For instance, an audience that we face today may be different from the
one we are going to face the following week, even though we may be discussing
the same issue. Among other things, a speaker needs to consider:
(a) Audience Size
This refers to the number of people who make up the audience. The size of
the audience would determine whether the speaker should use audiovisual
aids and/or a public announcement system. It also influences the
speakerÊs bodily movements when facing the audience. Speaking before
thirty people is not the same as addressing a crowd of three thousand.
(b) Audience Homogeneity
This characteristic determines the choice of words, examples and evidences
that the speaker needs to consider. A homogeneous audience made up of
only teenage girls is easier to deal with than a mixed group of individuals.
With a heterogeneous audience the speaker needs to use several examples
relevant to the mixed group and more elaborations using words that can be
understood by everyone.
(c) AudienceÊs Perception Towards the Topic
It is important to determine the audienceÊs views towards the topic. This is
to enable the speaker to prepare counter arguments in cases where the topic
is a sensitive one. Furthermore, knowing their views beforehand enables
the speaker to choose the best approach to present the topic to them.
(d) AudienceÊs Perceptions Towards the Speaker
As a speaker you also need to consider what your audience thinks of you.
Are you a popular personality, or are you a controversial figure? Are you
someone they canÊt wait to see and listen to, or are you a stranger to them?
2 4 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
To address an audience where the speaker has established a rapport is
easier than to deliver a speech to a group of new people as you need to
work harder to prove to them that you are worth listening to.
(e) AudienceÊs Expectations
It is good to find out the audienceÊs expectations of your topic. What are the
issues that they expect you to elaborate on in the presentation?
If a speaker puts in effort to analyses his audience, he will be more prepared to
present the speech as they will be familiar to him. The speaker will be able to
pitch his speech to meet the audienceÊs level of understanding.
ANALYSING THE EVENT
Besides analysing the audience, it is also important for a speaker to familiarize
himself with the event or function that the speech will be presented in. An event
analysis will enable the speaker to synchronize his speech to suit the occasion. As
a result, the speech will be easier to follow, and thus more effective, since it
correlates with the function. Among the aspects that the speaker needs to be
concerned with are:
(a) The Duration of the Event
The speaker must consider the duration of the whole speaking event.
Sometimes the event may take up to a month, a week, a few days, or several
hours. For example, a conference on climate change could take a week.
Next, find out how much time is allotted for each speaker. In some
functions a speaker may be given as long as two hours or as short as fifteen
minutes. This will determine the amount of information that he needs to
search for, how he will organize his speech and what, audio-visual aids
would be needed, if any.
3.2
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Discuss why an audience analysis is vital in speech making?
2. Explain the differences between the demographic and
situational characteristics of the audience.
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 25
(b) The SpeakerÊs Turn and Time to Present the Speech
Knowing the scheduled time and day of the speech, will guide us in our
preparation. For instance, if we know that we have to speak towards the
end of the day to a saturated, lethargic, and fatigued audience, we would
have to search for more interesting materials.
(c) The Purpose of the Function
This is a fundamental question that a speaker needs to know. With this
information, the speaker will be able to tailor his message to support the
objective of organising such an event.
ANALYSING THE SITUATION
Besides analysing the audience and event, one also needs to analyse the speaking
situation. The speaker needs to find information on the following:
(a) Venue or Location of the Speaking Event
The venue and location of the speaking event will determine the mood and
spirit of the presentation. A venue such as a conference hall, an auditorium,
or a lecture theatre allows the presentation to be made in a more formal
manner. On the other hand, if we are to deliver our speech to an assembly
in a village field or padang, our presentation can be more casual and
informal. The venue and locality will also determine the use and choice of
visual aids.
(b) Facilities Available
Find out what facilities are available. Will there be any rostrum,
microphone, screen, white board, flip chart, laptop computer, or LCD
projectors that you may need in your presentation? Should any of these
facilities be unavailable, you may have to think of alternatives, or bring
them along yourself.
(c) AudienceÊs Seating Arrangements
Find out the audienceÊs seating arrangements. Will it be a classroom or
theatre-style seating arrangement? Or will it be free seating such as in the
3.3
ACTIVITY 3.3
Explain why a speaker needs to make an analysis of the function or
event that he will be speaking in.
2 6 TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION
field or open arena? The seating arrangement of the audience will influence
the mode of presentation, whether it is formal or casual. A well organised
seating arrangement such as a classroom, a theatre or U-shape normally
demands a more formal presentation, whereas a free and loose
arrangement allows for a more casual or informal talk. Besides that, the
seating arrangement will determine whether the speaker can move around
during the presentation or has to be rooted at the podium.
It is very important for a public speaker to analyse his audience. There are
two types of audience characteristics to be analysed: demographic and
situational.
The demographic characteristics of the audience can be analysed by looking
at their age group, gender, religion, race, occupation, educational background
and also political ideology.
Situational characteristics refer to the audienceÊs size, homogeneity, their
views on the topic, perception towards the speaker and also their
expectations.
Knowing the audience beforehand will help the speaker to pitch his speech to
meet their level of understanding and expectations.
Besides analysing the audience, a speaker also needs to analyse the function
and the situation.
Things about the event that the speaker needs to know are the duration of the
event, the purpose for the function and the speaking schedule. In analysing
the speaking situation, the speaker needs to know the venue and location of
the event, the facilities available as well as the seating arrangement of the
audience.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Why is it important for the speaker to analyse the speaking
situation?
TOPIC 3 ANALYSING THE AUDIENCE, EVENT AND SITUATION 27
Analysis of audience
Analysis of events or functions
Analysis of situations
Demographic characteristics
Heterogeneous audience
Homogeneous audience
Situational characteristics
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.



TOPIC 4
INTRODUCTION
The stem or topic of a speech depends very much on the speakersÊ ability to
search for information. This information will be arranged into a specific
organisational pattern to form the complete structure of a speech. The
organisational structure depends on the objective(s) of the speech. For example,
an informative speech will have a different structure compared to a persuasive
speech. It is very important for a speaker to organise his speech since the
audience can only follow and understand organised messages. Disorganised
messages will only confuse them and after a short while will turn them off from
listening to the speakerÊs words.
Topic
4
Gathering and
Organising
Materials
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective ways of gathering of information from
various sources;
2. Explain the techniques to determine the focus of a speech topic;
3. Identify the techniques of organising materials for an informative
speech; and
4. Differentiate between the ways of organising materials in the
body of a speech.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 29
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Assuming that you have been assigned a topic or subject of your speech, the next
step is to jot down whatever comes to your mind regarding the matter. For
example, if you are assigned to talk about drug abuse, you may have some ideas
about this issue from the newspapers, electronic media or from discussions
among your friends. You may even know or have met someone involved in drug
addiction. Now, write down whatever information you have regarding the topic.
The next step is to check your own personal files of newspaper or magazine
clippings if you are one of those who make a habit of keeping materials this way.
You can access the Internet to find more information on the matter. Some
speakers like to make their own notations while attending talks, training courses,
seminars or forums. Now is the time to use these very important notes.
To widen your sources of references, you may want to access the resources in the
library or resource centre. You can choose from various types of references such as
books, journal articles, encyclopaedia, magazines, newspapers, and online
materials relevant to the topic. Additionally, you may want to interview
individuals with authority or expertise, such as the Police DepartmentÊs Narcotics
Division to get some first hand information. Conversations with drug addicts and
their family members could also provide useful insights on your topic.
4.1
ACTIVITY 4.1
ACTIVITY 4.2
Think back on the last talk/lecture that you attended. Try to recall
the main ideas that the speaker tried to convey to the audience.
Were they clearly organised? Discuss.
1. Choose a topic which interests you.
2. Jot down any information that comes to mind regarding the
topic.
3. Now find more information on the topic by consulting
various sources available to you.
3 0 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
We tend to gather enough information for a two or three hour speech, even if we
are given only ten or fifteen minutes to speak.
To help us determine our focus, we could use the ÂCobweb MethodÊ. Through
this method, the topic or the subject matter needs to be placed in the centre to
form the axis of the web. From the centre, we can then branch out with the main
ideas. From each of these main ideas, we can then create several sub-points as
illustrated in Figure 4.1 below.
We can see from the diagram that the topic i.e. drug abuse is placed in the centre,
to form the axis of the web. Then through brainstorming, five main ideas branch
out from the axis (causes, effects, symptoms, addicts and handling).
Subsequently, three sub-points are drawn out from each of the main ideas.
Figure 4.1: The cobweb method
After sketching the cobweb, the speaker needs to select two or three main ideas
with the sub-points due to time constraints. Develop these in detail and organise
them to form a complete speech structure.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Sketch a „cobweb‰ from the topic that you have identified in the
previous activity.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 31
SPEECH FORMAT
After identifying two or three main ideas with the sub-points from the cobweb,
now we can arrange them to form a complete speech structure. The structure
should be based on the informative speech format. The format consists of three
main parts, namely the introduction, body and conclusion. In detail, the format is
as shown in Figure 4.2.
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Greetings
2. Salutations
3. Attention getter
4. Preview
5. Procedure
II. BODY
1. Main ideas and sub-points
2. Supporting materials
III. CONCLUSION
1. Review
2. Memorable statement
3. Closing remarks
Figure 4.2: A speech format
So we can see that a structure of a speech is similar to the anatomy of a human
being. If a human being has three distinctive parts, i.e. head, torso and legs, so
does a speech. The introduction for the speech can be regarded as the head, the
body of the speech as the torso, and the conclusion, the legs.
The first section of a speech is the introduction. Generally, it consists of a greeting
and salutations, an attention getter, and a preview.. This section will take
between 10 and 20 percent of the whole presentation. The body which follows
takes about 70-80 percent of the total speech. It contains the main ideas and
sub-points. These should be supported by the relevant supporting materials. The
third section is the conclusion which takes up the remaining 5-10 percent of the
total speech. It reviews the main ideas and ends with a memorable statement.
4.2
3 2 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
PREPARING A SPEECH OUTLINE
After deciding on the main ideas in the presentation, draw the outline of the
speech. Even though this outline should not be taken along during the speech
delivery, it serves as a useful guideline in preparing the whole speech.
The outline should follow the format as shown in Figure 4.3. It should consist of
the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
Speech topic:
Speech objective:
I. Main idea 1.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
3. Sub-point 3
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
II. Main idea 2.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
4.3
ACTIVITY 4.4
1. List the three main sections of a speech. Elaborate on each of
them.
2. From your cobweb in the previous activity, identify three
main ideas and the sub-points to be presented to your
audience.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 33
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
III. Main idea 3.
1. Sub-point 1
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
2. Sub-point 2
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
c. Elaboration and/or support.
3. Sub-point 3
a. Elaboration and/or support.
b. Elaboration and/or support.
Figure 4.3: A speech outline
Note that it is not necessary to have an equal number of sub-points for every
main idea as well as for elaborations and/or substantiations.
Figure 4.4 is an example of an outline for a speech on drug abuse.
Speech topic: Drug Abuse amongst Teenagers in Malaysia
Speech objective: To enable the audience to understand the phenomenon
of drug abuse among Malaysian teenagers.
A) The introduction
B) The body
i) The addicts
Students.
- School children.
- Students from Higher Learning Institutions.
Non-students
- School drop-outs.
ii) Causes of drug abuse
External factors.
- Peer influence.
- Media and influence of foreign cultures
3 4 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
Family factors.
- Busy parents.
- Uncaring family.
- Lack of family cohesiveness.
Weak religious devotion.
- Lack of religious knowledge.
- Lack of religious practices.
Frustration and disappointment.
- In work or study.
iii) Effects of drug abuse
Effects on the individual.
- Mental problems.
- Physical problems.
Effects on the family of the addicts.
- Emotional trauma suffered by family members.
- Social stigma faced by family members.
Effects on society.
- Public disturbances.
- Negative effects on the countryÊs productivity.
- Wasted potential of youths.
- High cost of rehabilitating addicts.
- Time and resources wasted in combating the drug
menace.
C) The conclusion
Figure 4.4: Example of an outline for a speech on drug abuse
ACTIVITY 4.5
1. Arrange the three main ideas and sub-points that you have
identified in Activity 4.4 into a complete structure for an
informative speech.
2. Prepare your speech outline based on the structure.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 35
ORGANISING THE BODY OF A SPEECH
The body of a speech needs to be systematically organised to enable the audience
to follow the speech easily. This part of the speech consists of the main ideas
which are divided into several sub-points. The sub-points are supplemented with
supporting materials which serve two functions. Firstly, to strengthen the subpoints,
for example, using facts, statistics and quotations collected from various
credible sources. The speakerÊs observations and relevant past experiences can
also be used to support the sub-points.
The second function of supporting materials is to embellish or enhance the subpoints.
This can be in the form of humorous statements, a poem, or proverbs to
sustain audience interest.
There are several options for arranging the main ideas of a speech. Some of them
are as follows:
(a) Spatial Order
For this arrangement, the main ideas are set out based on geography. For
instance, according to provinces, districts, states, countries, regions, or
continents.
Example:
I. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Perak.
II. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Negeri Sembilan.
III. Symptoms of H1N1 were reported in Pahang.
(b) Chronological Order
Here, the main ideas are arranged based on the chronology of events, and
the time spans may be stated in centuries, decades, years, months, weeks,
and days.
Example:
I. The development of Malay music in the 50s.
II. The development of Malay music in the 60s.
III. The development of Malay music in the 70s.
IV. The development of Malay music in the 80s.
4.4
3 6 TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS
(c) Sub-topical Order
In this type of arrangement the main ideas are organised based on subtopics.
This is the most commonly used arrangement in most speeches.
Example:
I. Degree programmes offered in University Malaya
II. Entrance requirements for international students.
III. Tuition fees.
(d) Cause and Effect
For this arrangement the main ideas are organised based on a causal
relationship. Initially, the main ideas discuss the causes of a phenomenon
whereas the subsequent ideas focus on its effects or consequences.
Example:
I. Education will overcome illiteracy
II. Once people are literate, information on development can easily be
disseminated.
III. Information dissemination will expedite development of a nation.
A speaker should be able to identify and choose a type of arrangement that is
most suitable for the materials he has gathered. Some materials are best arranged
chronologically, but some are more effective when spatially arranged.
A public speaker must be skillful in gathering materials to be delivered to an
audience. He must know where to look for information in preparing for his
speech.
ACTIVITY 4.6
1. Explain the four types of arrangement for the main ideas in the
body of a speech.
2. Choose a pattern that best suits the materials that you have
identified in the previous activity. Organise your main ideas
based on that pattern.
TOPIC 4 GATHERING AND ORGANIZING MATERIALS 37
Once the speaker has gathered enough information, he must focus on certain
main ideas to be shared with the audience since the duration for his speech is
normally limited. One of the ways to determine the focus is through the
cobweb method.
The main ideas identified from the cobweb need to be arranged in a certain
fashion to suit the audience and the objective of the presentation. This
arrangement will form a complete structure of a speech which consists of the
introduction, the body and the conclusion.
Cause and effects
Chronological order
Cobweb method
Information gathering
Main ideas
Online materials
Organisation
Printed sources of information
Spatial order
Speech outline
Speech structure
Sub-points
Sub-topical order
Abdul MuaÊti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J. W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th ed.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S. E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G. M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill
Educational Publishing.
Walter, O. M and Scott R. L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent
oral communication. 8th ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing.



TOPIC 5

INTRODUCTION
After preparing the body of the speech, the next step is to plan how to introduce the speech to the audience since it determines whether or not the audience will pay attention from the start and continue to listen to the rest of the speech. A good introduction is just like a good promotion. It will get the audience to patiently follow through with the speech till its conclusion. On the other hand, a poor introduction will put them off.
An introduction of a speech aims to prepare the audience to listen with an open heart and mind. Additionally, a good introduction is planned so that it can develop audience interest and attract their attention to the topic at hand.
Topicc
Planning an Introduction and Conclusion

5
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
1. Identify the effective techniques of planning the introduction of aspeech;
2. Arrange appropriate salutations of a speech; and
3. Identify the effective techniques of planning the conclusion of a speech.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  39
ACTIVITY 5.1
Try to recall the last talk/lecture that you attended. Try to remember how the speaker introduced his speech and how he concluded it. Note them down.
PLANNING THE INTRODUCTION
5.1
An introduction in a speech consists of several items as shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Items in the introduction section of a speech
The explanation is as follows:
(a)
Greetings
At the beginning of a speech, the speaker needs to greet the audience accordingly. A Muslim speaker addressing a Muslim audience will offer salam (greetings of peace) whereas in a multi-religious situation he or she can greet the audience with „Good morning‰ or whatever is appropriate to that particular time of the day.
(b)
Salutations
In Malaysia, especially in formal functions involving dignitaries and public figures, the speaker needs to prepare this section according to the protocol procedures observed in the states or at the federal level. Generally the bigger and more formal events will require more complicated salutations since it involves more important guests of honour. These important people must be addressed according to their social hierarchy, during the
4 0  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
introduction of a speech prior to the elaboration of our main ideas. In addressing these dignitaries we need to call them by their proper title and designation. Table 5.1 shows some examples of Malaysian official salutations:
Table 5.1: Examples of Malaysian Official Salutations
Forms of Salutations Dignitaries
Yang Amat Berhormat Prime Minister, Deputy Prime
Minister, Menteri Besar, Chief
Ministers.
Yang Amat Berbahagia The wife of the Prime Minister,
Prime Minister, Deputy Prime
Minister, Menteri Besar, Chief
Ministers, and those with the title of ÂTUNÊ.
Yang Berhormat Members of Parliament, Cabinet
Ministers, Members of State
Assemblies, State Exco Members, Speakers of Parliament and State Assemblies, State Secretaries, State Legal Advisors, State Financial Officers or Treasurers.
Yang Berbahagia Heads of Government Departments.
Apart from the forms of salutations, a speaker also needs to observe titles bestowed upon the public figures attending the function. Normally the titles used in Malaysian society are: Tun, Tan Sri, DatoÊ Seri, DatoÊ Paduka, DatoÊ Seri Utama, DatoÊ Seri Amar DiRaja, Datuk Wira, Datuk Patinggi, Datuk Amar, DatoÊ and Datuk.
The Malaysian protocol system also allows particular titles to be used by the wives of dignitaries. For example: Toh Puan, Puan Sri, Datin Seri and Datin.
(c)
Attention Getter
It is imperative for a speaker to grab the audienceÊs attention prior to discussing the topic right from the start. At times, due to elaborate salutations, the audienceÊs attention fades away by the time the speaker gets to the end of the protocol list. Some of the approaches to attract the audience attention are:
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  41
(i) Posing a startling statement
More often than not the audience are attracted to statements that are unusual or extraordinary, as long as they are relevant to the topic.
(ii) Presenting statistics or quantification
Startling statistics presented at the beginning of a speech are capable of attracting audience attention. For instance, a speaker quotes that there are about 200,000 drug addicts in Malaysia currently. This statement will invite the audience to follow the entire speech in order to understand the severity of the problem of drug abuse in the country.
(iii) Asking questions
Sometimes, the speakers might pose a Ârhetorical questionÊ which needs no answer from the members of the audience but which serves to encourage them to ponder over.
(iv) Stating quotations from credible sourcess
Relevant quotations stated at the beginning of a speech will be able to draw audience attention. In order to be able to quote from credible sources, one has no alternative but to read. The quotations can be from books, magazines, newspapers, journal articles or even online materials. The more popular the source, the more attention paid by the audience. Besides published materials, quotations can also come from the words of public figures, leaders, authorities or experts in relevant fields, locally or internationally. In order to avoid plagiarism, speakers are recommended to cite the source of information accurately every time he/she quotes.
(v) Injecting humour
Humorous statements are also capable of attracting audience attention if properly inserted at the beginning of a speech. However, to use humour effectively in a speech, one needs to abide by certain guidelines. For instance, never tell the audience that we have a joke to tell but rather tell them that we have something to share with them. Avoid using ÂdirtyÊ jokes in our speech. This might offend certain quarters in the audience. A speaker should present the humorous statement to the audience in a conversational manner and laugh with them.
(d)
Preview
In the preview, the speaker states the topic and the main ideas or scope of the presentation. For example, „Today, I would like to take this opportunity to share with you the problem of drug abuse in Malaysia. In discussing this topic, I will divide my presentation into three sections. First, I will explain
4 2  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
the current status of the phenomenon. Secondly I will discuss the impact of drug abuse in this country. Finally, I will present to you the efforts to combat the problem.‰
A speech preview prepares the audience to follow the speech. With it, the audience is able to visualise the scope and boundaries of the discussion.
(e)
Procedure
This approach is optional. Besides introducing any assistant who will help in the speech presentation, the speaker informs the audience of the apparatus and audio-visual aids that are to be used. Since not all topics require the above, this part should be included only whenever necessary.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1.
Based on the speech that you have prepared in the previous activities, construct the introduction of the speech. Assume that there are invited individuals attending your formal presentation. 2. Choose and develop a suitable attention getter for your speech. 3. Plan your speech preview.
PLANNING A CONCLUSION
5.2
Similar to the introduction, the conclusion of a speech needs to be systematically planned. A good conclusion will give the audience a sense of satisfaction and a longing to listen to the same speaker again in the future.
The conclusion of a speech should include the following three elements: review, memorable statement and closing remarks.
(a)
Review
A review recapitulates the main ideas that have been presented in the body of a speech. In short, a review merely repeats the preview. For example „⁄Ladies and gentlemen, now we have reached the conclusion of my presentation. Throughout my speech I have shared with you the problem of drug abuse in Malaysia. I have explained the current status of the issue. I have also presented to you the impact of drug abuse on society. Finally, I have discussed the measures taken by the government in handling the phenomenon⁄‰
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  43
(b)
Memorable Statement
This element is an attempt by the speaker to sow certain points into the audienceÊs mind. There are various approaches in carrying out this intention. Amongst others, the methods are:
(i)
Referring to a Theme or Motto
Sometimes relating the essence of your presentation to the theme of the programme or the motto of the organising party will make the statement stick in the audienceÊs mind for quite a long time.
(ii)
Projecting the Future
Through this method the speaker attempts to visualise the consequences in the future based on the essence of his/her speech. For example, in the speech on drug abuse, the speaker tries to project the effects of the abuse on the future generations of the country should we fail to solve the problem.
(iii)
Offering a Reminder
Through this approach the speaker takes the opportunity at the end of the speech to remind the audience of certain important issues related to the topic. It may also be an exhortation or suggestion for them to take action about the issue.
(iv)
Reading Out Poems
Some speakers prefer to end their speeches with poetic annotations. For instance, at the end of a speech, one speaker reads an inspirational poem by Lorene Harshman entitled ÂLive like a winnerÊ
live like a winner
give life all you've got
make your best shot
live like a winner
rock what you've got
just don't get caught
live like a winner
try your best
put your mind to the test
live like a winner
and you will do great
(Source: http://www.poetryamerica.ccom/)
4 4  TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
(c)
Closing Remarks
This refers to the speakerÊs parting words. Normally, speakers in Malaysia prefer to say „Thank you‰ in appreciation to the audience for their attention to the speech. Muslim speakers usually leave their audience with salam similar to the greeting at the beginning of the speech.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1.
Basedon the speech that you have prepared in the previous activities, construct a conclusion for the speech. 2. Choose and develop the most suitable memorable statement for your speech. 3. Plan your speech review and your closing remarks.

A speech introduction needs to be systematically planned. The introduction normally consists of greetings, salutations, an attention getter, a preview and procedure.

A good introduction will arouse audience interest and hold it throughout the speech.

A speech conclusion needs to be systematically designed. This part consists of a review, a memorable statement and closing remarks.

An effective conclusion will help the audience to remember the speech.
TOPIC 5 PLANNING AN INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION  45
Attention getter
Body
Closing remarks
Conclusion
Greetings
Introduction
Main ideas
Memorable statement
Preview
Procedure
Review
Salutations
Abdul Mua'ti @ Zamri Ahmad. (2008). Panduan pengucapan awam. 2nd ed. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Gibson, J.W. (2004). Speech communication: Fundamentals and practice. 9th. ed. Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall.
Lucas, S.E. (2005). The art of public speaking. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Phillips, G.M. (2005). Speaking in public and private. Indianapolis: Bobs-Merill Educational Publishing.
Walter, O.M and Scott R.L. (2003). Thinking and speaking: A guide to intelligent oral communication. 8th ed. New York: Mac Millan Publishing.

Lagu NegaraKu Malaysia Sempena Kemerdekaan ke-57 Sentimental

http://youtu.be/AHHHX85Xqp4

Lagu NegaraKu Malaysia Sempena Kemerdekaan ke-57 Sentimental

TAJUK: Lagu NegaraKu Malaysia Sempena Kemerdekaan ke-57

Di si ni ku di la hir kan di si ni ku di be sar kan
Di si ni ku ke nal er ti Ku me nge nal er ti ke hi du pan

Ta nah a ir ku yg ter cin ta E lok ru pa pel ba gai bang sa
A man Da mai da lam har mo ni Su dah ter ke nal di ma ta du nia

Ya Tu han be ri kan ka mi har mo ni Mem bi na ne ga ra Nu sa dan bang sa
Ke kal kan Pe me rin ta han Di Ra ja A gar ke kal se la ma la ma nya

Ma ri lah ki ta ber sa a ma Meng ha rum na ma mu Ma lay sia
Ber sa tu ber pa du se mu a Me nu ju Ne ga ra ber ja ya

Ma ri lah ki ta ber sa A ma Meng ha rum na ma mu Ma lay sia
Ber sa tu ber pa du se mu a Me nu ju Ne ga ra Ber ja ya

~muzik~ulang~sambung~

Ya tu han be ri kan ka mi har mo ni
Mem bi na ne ga ra Nu sa dan bang sa
Ke kal kan Pe me rin ta han Di Ra ja
A gar ke kal se la ma la ma nya
A gar ke kal se la ma la ma nya
A gar ke kal se la ma la ma a nya

Melungsuri seorang guru biasa bersama teman, sahabat dan persekitarannya.
Semoga negara Malaysia maju jaya dimasa hadapan, amin.
http://youtu.be/AHHHX85Xqp4