Topic 1 Introduction to Creativity
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the general concept and the significance of creativity;
2. Identify the components and different models of creativity;
3. Describe important traits of creative people;
4. Discuss the concept and the differences of creative industries; and
5. Discuss the approaches that address the categories which make up the creative industries.
INTRODUCTION
Creativity is highly regarded as a valued trait in contemporary society. For many
people, it is among the most important qualities that one could possess. The
possibilities and advantages connected with creativity are huge and almost
immeasurable. But at the same time, people continue to understand the concept
of creativity, the creative process and how it works.
Questions and debates remain on fundamental issues such as what is creativity,
where does creativity come from, what makes creative people creative and how
can one be more creative. These questions around creativity only point to the
importance that creativity plays in our lives. This topic introduces the basic idea
of creativity by looking at its definition and significance as well as components
including some of its models and the traits of creative people. This topic also
discusses the concept of creative industries, and how it contributes to the
national and global economy.
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVITY
ACTIVITY 1.1
Creativity means different things to different people. List the
meaning of creativity from five different sources such as dictionaries,
encyclopedias or associations. Analyse your findings and formulate
your own definition based on the analysis.
1.1 UNDERSTANDING CREATIVITY
There are many definitions of creativity. For some people, creativity means being imaginative or inventive. For others it is about original thinking or producing something that nobody has produced before. Some people also believe that creativity means taking risks or challenging convention. Others believe that creativity applies only to those who have artistic and creative talents.
Creativity is viewed in different ways within different disciplines. A creative product in different domains is measured against the norms of that domain, its own rules, approaches and conceptions of creativity (Gomez, 2007). For example, in education, it is called „innovation‰. While creativity is conceptualised as a system for generating and evaluating novel ideas, innovation is when novel ideas are implemented and result in effective novelty.
In business, creativity is related to "entrepreneurship". Theorists have recognised that entrepreneurial activities and creativity underpin all successful entrepreneurship which is characterised by a set of skills that are useful and best developed in an integrative and engaged environment. In mathematics, creativity is sometimes equated with „"roblem-solving" which is a mathematical task that has the potential to provide intellectual challenges for enhancing students mathematical understanding and development and it plays a prominent role in
mathematical proficiencies. In arts or music it is understood as "performance or composition". Researchers within the domain have conducted investigations pertaining to methods of enhancing creativity in music composition, particularly towards identifying factors influencing creativity in music education.
Creativity was originally viewed as a "mystical process" with no scientific studies to lend credibility to the field. Traditionally, it has been associated with the achievements of extraordinary people such as Einstein, Galileo and Da Vinci, Mozart and Beethoven. In the Muslim civilisation, great personalities such as Al-Khwarizmi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Batani, and Omar Khayyam were great scientists and inventors who were highly creative. They made innumerable discoveries and wrote countless books on medicine, surgery, physics, chemistry, philosophy, astrology, geometry and various other fields. These creative personalities were probably hundreds of years ahead of their counterparts in the European Middle Ages.
Focusing on extraordinary personalities, however, perpetuates the wrong perception that creativity is about special people creating special inventions. Research shows that there is no specific personality type associated with creativity. It is possible to be creative in any activity that engages our intelligence because intelligence itself is essentially creative. Creative processes are rooted in the imagination and our lives are shaped by the ideas we use to give them meaning. We all have creative capacities but, in many instances, we do not know what they are or how to draw on them.
Generally, creativity can be described as the production of useful solutions to problems, or new and interesting ideas,which create products and impact thinking. This new, interesting and novel idea must have significance and value impacting others at the same time. With no potential value to others, these ideas cannot be considered "creative". The goal of creative performance is to add knowledge and understanding, to give new perspectives and to solve problems. It is to create innovative ways of thinking or doing things, or to give new insights and knowledge in a certain field.
Franken (1982) in Human Motivation, defines creativity as the tendency to generate or recognise ideas, alternatives or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, as well as in communicating with others and entertaining ourselves and others. Creativity has also been described as the combination of divergent and convergent thinking (Young, 1990). Divergent thinking involves the generation of alternatives and unique ideas in the thinking process, whereas, convergent thinking involves selecting ideas based on their uniqueness, feasibility and quality (Kirton, 1987).
Creativity has also been referred to as uniqueness or originality. Originality can be associated often with a novel or unique idea (Fearn, 1976). Torrance and Safter (1999) defined originality as a trait which "involves getting away from the obvious and common place or breaking away from habit bound thinking". Barron (1969) defined original thoughts or ideas as those that are new to others.
Creativity occurs when there is some degree of knowing, perception and cognitive history. Creative thinking does not occur unless there is recognition of a problem and ommitment to deal with it. So, creative thinking begins when there is a problem and there is a commitment to solve that problem. From the discourse on creativity, it is clear that some definitions suggest that creativity is the generation of imaginative new ideas that involve a radical innovation or solution to a problem, and also a radical reformulation of problems. Other definitions propose that a creative solution can be achieved by integrating existing knowledge in a different way. Another set of definitions proposes that a creative solution, either new or recombined, must be valuable. Therefore, a novel idea is not a creative idea unless it is of a certain value.
As a combination of this variety of definitions, we can say that creativity involves the generation of new ideas or the recombination of known elements into something new, providing valuable solutions to a problem. It also involves motivation and emotion. Creativity is a "fundamental feature of human intelligence in general. It is grounded in everyday capacities such as the association of ideas, reminding, perception, analogical thinking, searching a structured problem-space and reflecting self-criticism. It involves not only a cognitive dimension (the generation of new ideas) but also motivation and emotion, and is closely linked to cultural context and personality factors". (Boden, 1998).
Today, creativity is recognised as a practical skill. It is a way of thinking in which we look at familiar things with a fresh eye, examine a problem with an open mind about how it might be solved and use our imagination rather than our knowledge to explore new possibilities instead of established approaches.
Table 1.1 explains some of the definitions of creativity.
Table 1.1: Some Definitions of Creativity
Source Description
Boden (1998) Creativity involves not only a cognitive dimension but also motivation and emotion, and is closely linked to cultural context and personality factors.
Franken (1982) The tendency to generate or recognise ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others as well as entertaining ourselves and others.
Young (1990); The combination of divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent
Kirton (1987) thinking involves the generation of alternatives and unique ideas in the thinking process, whereas convergent thinking involves selecting ideas based on their uniqueness, feasibility and quality.
Torrance and Safter (1999); Fearn (1976) -
Uniqueness or originality which can be associated often with a novel or unique idea or a trait which involves getting away from the obvious and commonplace or breaking away from habit bound thinking.
1.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CREATIVITY
Creativity or the ability to generate novel ideas and to think creatively about problems, has long been considered an important skill for individuals. Creative problem solving by an individual can generate new products and services for businesses, which, in turn, create jobs for others. With creativity, people are able to solve problems effectively.
Creativity is clearly important not only at an individual level but also at societal, organisational, national and global levels in order for growth and development. At an individual level, creativity improves self-esteem, motivation and the achievement of a person. Educational practitioners and psychologists have observed the contributions of creativity in many areas for an individual such as life success, leadership in the workplace, psychological functioning and intellectual and emotional growth.
The most creative individuals are often the best problem-solvers and innovators when it comes to everything from interpersonal issues to intellectual or artistic endeavours. Being able to come up with new ideas and solve everyday problems is important for people on a personal level. It plays a critically important role in learning and personal development, as well as in building self-esteem.
Societies need new inventions, original scientific findings and novel social programmes to advance. Companies need to develop creative solutions strategies to solve problems, to create and sell new products as well as to adapt to changing environments and to succeed in the marketplace. Companies also need to expand their opportunity horizon and competence base.
Creativity is certainly important on a national and global level for social, cultural, educational, technological and economic progress and development. The importance of creativity for both human progress and adaptation is one reason why scholars in all disciplines continue their research and discussions in understanding how creative thinking occurs and how it can be fostered. In this case, many researchers have noted that creativity is essential to human development, as well as mental and emotional health.
Creativity can become a predictor of outstanding life accomplishment than conventional measures of intelligence or school examination grades. In business, the efficient commercialisation of creative ideas by teams of knowledge workers in the form of intellectual property has become the source of value creation. Human resource or human capital and, most importantly, its creativity is the new raw material for businesses in the 21st century. A successful organisation thrives on its diversity of ideas, capabilities and perspectives which mean that engaged, motivated, diverse and creative talents need to be attracted, retained and cultivated. In todayÊs world, the skills and qualities that we associate with creativity and ingenuity are required to help us work more effectively together.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. By using specific examples, discuss how creativity contributes to the following areas for an individual:
(a) Life success;
(b) Leadership in the workplace;
(c) Psychological functioning;
(d) Intellectual growth; and
(e) Emotional growth.
2. Identify the similarities and differences in the following quotations on the importance of creativity.
Edward De Bono
Creativity is a great motivator because it makes people interested in what they are doing. Creativity gives hope that there can be a worthwhile idea. Creativity gives the possibility of some sort of achievement to everyone. Creativity makes life more fun and more interesting.
Sir Ken Robinso Creativity is the process of developing ideas that are original and of value. Creative intelligence is dynamic, diverse and distinct.
Steve Jobs Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they did not really do it, they just
saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while. That is because they were able to connect experiences they have had and synthesise new things.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
Creativity is the key to success in the future, and primary education is where teachers can bring creativity in children at that level.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Indicate whether the given definition of the concept is correct or incorrect.
Concept Definition (?) or (X)
Convergent thinking - Selecting ideas based on their uniqueness.
Artistic competence = Fundamental feature of human intelligence in general.
Divergent thinking - Generation of alternatives and unique ideas in the thinking process.
Creativity - Generation of imaginative new ideas involving a radical innovation or solution to a problem, and a radical reformulation of problems.
Originality - Associated with a novel idea or a trait which involves getting away from the obvious and commonplace.
Lateral thinking - Combination of divergent and convergent thinking.
Motivation - Predictor of outstanding life accomplishment than conventional measures of intelligence.
Analogical thinking - An essential element to human development, mental health and self-actualisation.
1.3 COMPONENTS OF CREATIVITY
Several researchers have attempted to better understand the components or sources of creativity and innovation in individuals. There is, however, disagreement between researchers and many assumptions remain to be fully justified and substantiated. The challenge lies in the nature and definition of creativity itself. Broad and multifaceted, creativity can take many forms and can be found within a variety of contexts.
Psychological research on creativity has developed significantly since the 1950s and much of the research has focused on the cognitive processes behind creativity, the characteristics of creative people, the development of creativity and the social environments most conducive to creativity.
Amabile (2005), Head of the Entrepreneurial Management Unit at the Harvard Business School, stated that creativity arises through the convergence of the following three components, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Components of creativity
Figure 1.1 shows that the three components of creativity are knowledge or
expertise, creativity skills or creative thinking and task motivation. Knowledge or expertise refers to the technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge while creativity skills or creative thinking means approaching problems imaginatively and flexibly. Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move towards a goal. It initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. Intrinsic motivation is conducive and essential to creativity. The creative person is intrinsically motivated and is moved by the work itself and not by some external recognition or reward.
Knowledge is all the relevant information that an individual brings to bear on a problem. Some researchers explain that there are two types of knowledge that may be required for creativity. In-depth experience and long-term focus in one specific area allow people to build the technical expertise that can serve as a foundation for creativity within a domain. Creativity also rests on the ability to combine previously disparate elements in new ways, which implies a need for a broader focus and varied interests.
Another key aspect of creativity skills is creative thinking. Creative thinking is a strong ability to generate novel ideas by combining previously disparate elements. This synergistic thinking must be combined with analytical and practical thinking.
Adams (2005) describes the skills of creative thinking as:
(a) Comfort in disagreeing with others and trying solutions that depart from the status quo;
(b) Combining knowledge from previously disparate fields;
(c) Ability to persevere through difficult problems and dry spells; and
(d) Ability to step away from an effort and return later with a fresh perspective.
The central component of creative thinking is the ability to combine existing creativity. "Motivational attributes such as curiosity, intrinsic interest and perseverance bordering on obsession seem to set individuals who change the culture apart from the rest of humankind" (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). People will be most creative when they feel motivated primarily by the interest, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself and not by external pressures [that is, extrinsic motivation]‰ (Amabile, 1998). Personal motivation therefore refers to the appropriate levels of intrinsic motivation and passion for one's work combined with appropriate synergistic motivators and self-confidence.
The components of creativity are sometimes generalised into the following ("Nurturing Community to Promote Effective Use of Technology", 2015):
(a) Cognitive
The cognitive aspects of creativity include basic knowledge (both general
and field-specific), perceptiveness, originality, attraction to complexity
(such as combining, analysing and applying different, disparate ideas or
concepts) and open-mindedness (like resistance to closure and awareness of
creativity).
(b) Affective.
Affective elements include curiosity, humour, independence and risk-taking.
(c) Personal and Motivational
Your internal sense of self and ability to manage cutting-edge thinking are important components of creativity. As a creative person, you are intrinsically motivated by the work itself and not by some external recognition or reward. You are moved with a passion for your field.
(d) Social or Environmental.
The social and environmental component can stimulate creativity through offering a sense of positive challenge in the work such as work teams that are collaborative, diversely skilled and idea-focused. Other elements are freedom in carrying out the work as well as supervisors who encourage the development of new ideas. Environment factors, therefore, refer to a non-threatening, non-controlling climate conducive to idea combination and recombination.
The best profile for creativity is said to be the T-shaped mind (see Figure 1.2), with a breadth of understanding across multiple disciplines and one or two areas of in-depth expertise.
T-shaped employeesÊ are described as people:
(a) Who are so inquisitive about the world that they are willing to try to do what others are doing.
(b) Who have a principal skill that describes the vertical leg of the T they are mechanical engineers or industrial designers.
(c) Who are so empathetic that they can branch out into other skills, and they do as well.
(d) Who are able to explore insights from many different perspectives and recognise patterns of behaviour that point to a universal human need.
Figure 1.2: A T-Shape mind
ACTIVITY 1.3
Creativity is widely regarded as a vital component of economic growth. Official statistics published in 2014 reveal that the UKÊs creative industries, which include the film, television and music industries, are worth £71.4 billion per year to the UK economy. During 1988, the financial contribution generated by creative industries in the UK amounted to £6 billion. By 1998 this figure grew to £60 billion. Employment in these industries grew 34 per cent over the same period against a background of almost no growth in the economy as a whole.
Using the information on the Internet, find out the current situation of the creative industries in Malaysia and compare its development with Singapore, Indonesia or Thailand.
1.4 MODELS OF CREATIVITY
Some experts dismiss the idea that creativity can be described as a sequence of steps in a model. For example, some people argue that creative thinking in the arts does not follow a model. Gestalt philosophers, for example, assert that the process of creative thinking is an integrated line of thought that does not lend itself to the segmentation implied by the steps of a model. But while such views are strongly held, they are in the minority.
In order to understand the creative process, we need to look into the models of creativity. In his book Creativity: The Magical Synthesis, the author, Arieti (1976) described eight models of the creative thinking process that were proposed during the period before 1964. Many more models have been proposed since then. Next, you will find four general models as described by Gerlovina (2011):
(a) Psychodynamic Model
Psychodynamic models of creativity are founded on the idea that creativity is an unconscious process. In other words, creativity involves processes occurring of which the individual is unaware. For a long time, the unconscious appeared to be the perfect place for creativity to occur, especially because it helped to explain those moments when it seemed like a solution or creative idea sprung into the conscious mind out of nowhere.
(b) Problem-solving Model
The problem-solving models of creativity are rooted in the dea that creativity involves finding novel solutions to problems. Problem solving in general is an essential skill that involves iscovering, analysing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem solving is to overcome obstacles and to solve problems. Here creativity involves three main stages; considering the problem, thinking of possible solutions and testing or evaluating those solutions to determine whether they are useful or not. For many of us, the most difficult part of this process is coming up with possible solutions that may be appropriate. Divergent thinking, which again is non-rational free association thinking, will allow an individual to find a creative solution to the problem he or she is facing.
(c) Psychometric Model
The psychometric model of creativity is based on the idea that creativity is something that can be taught. This model of creativity promotes the idea that creativity is a matter of divergent, non-rational and free association thinking which can be facilitated by brainstorming followed by convergent thinking to produce creative solutions or ideas. Divergent thinking is a thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions. It is often used in conjunction with convergent thinking, which is a process that follows a particular set of logical steps to arrive at one solution. Examples of divergent thinking include free writing and brainstorming. Convergent thinking is a problem-solving technique in which ideas from different fields or participants are brought together (synthesised) to find a single, well-established, best or most often correct answer to a question.
(d) Personality Model
The personality model places more emphasis on the role the individual plays throughout the creative process. Some researchers believe that differences in individual brains account for differences in an individual's ability to process information. They assume that there exists a universal "artistic personality" which always proves to be creative and which will
support the idea that different personalities will be successful in their
creative endeavours across different times and places.
The predominant models of creativity lean more towards the theory that novel
ideas emerge from the conscious effort to balance analysis and imagination.
1.5 TRAITS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE
According to Torrance and Safter (1999), creativity models with a high level of reative achievement can be reached only from those who have creative motivations, for example,creative motivation and the skills necessary to allow for creative abilities. People who have a high level of creative abilities and skills may become creative achievers if their creative motivations can be enhanced. Also, people who have creative abilities and motivation can become achievers if they have the required creative skills.
Some of those creative abilities that Torrance and Safter (1999) identified to be the most important are:
(a) Problem awareness;
(b) Ability to produce and consider many alternatives;
(c) Flexibility;
(d) Originality;
(e) Ability to highlight the essence;
(f) Ability to elaborate;
(g) Openness;
(h) Being aware of emotions;
(i) Ability to put ideas into context;
(j) Combination and synthesis;
(k) Ability to visualise richly and colourfully;
(l) Ability to enjoy work and use fantasy;
(m) Kinesthetic responsiveness;
(n) Ability to look at things in different visual perspectives;
(o) Internal visualisation;
(p) Ability to break though and extend the boundaries; and
(q) Ability to let humour flow and use it.
In his book Fundamentals of Creative Thinking, Dacey (1985) provided a complete list of traits which characterise creative people. According to Dacey, not every highly creative individual will be seen to possess all of these listed traits. However, the more a person possesses or tries to achieve these characteristics, the more she or he improves her or his creativity.
The characteristics of creative people according to Dacey (1985) are as listed next:
(a) Are more sensitive to the existence of problems;
(b) Have a somewhat greater tendency toward emotional disturbance, but also have more self-control in dealing with this tendency;
c) Are able to think both convergently, solving problems that have only one correct answer and divergently, solving problems that have many possible answers;
(d) Demonstrate greater determination and perseverance;
(e) Have higher than average intelligence but do not often measure in the "geniu" range;
(f) Are more open to experience and less defensive about accepting new information;
(g) See themselves as responsible for most of what happens to them;
(h) Enjoy being playful and childlike, have the ability to "toy" with the environment;
(i) Engage more frequently in solitary activities, especially as children;
(j) Are more likely to question the status quo;
(k) Are more independent of the judgment of others;
(l) Are less afraid of their own impulses and hidden emotions;
(m) Like to do their own planning, make their own decisions as well as need the least training and experience in self-guidance;
(n) Do not like to work with others, and prefer their own judgment of their work to the judgment of others. They seldom ask other students or their teachers for opinions;
(o) Take a positive outlook when presented with complex and difficult tasks;
(p) Have the most ideas when a chance to express individual opinion is presented. These ideas frequently evoke the ridicule of others;
(q) Are most likely to stand their ground in the face of criticism;
(r) Are the most resourceful when unusual circumstances arise;
(s) Are not necessarily the "best" students;
(t) Show an imaginative use of many different words; and
(u) Are more original. Their ideas are qualitatively different from everyone else's.
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1996), creative individuals are remarkable in their ability to adapt to almost any situation and to make do with whatever is at hand to reach their goals. Their personalities are different from others in terms of complexity. They show tendencies of thought and action that in most people are segregated. They contain contradictory extremes; instead of being an "individual", each of them is a "multitude". Csikszentmihalyi listed the characteristics as follows:
(a) Creative people have a great deal of physical energy, but they are also often quiet and at rest. They work long hours, with great concentration, while projecting an aura of freshness and enthusiasm;
(b) Creative people tend to be smart yet naive at the same time. How smart they actually are is open to question but a core of general intelligence is high among people who make important creative contributions;
(c) Creative people combine playfulness and discipline, or responsibility and irresponsibility. This playfulness does not go very far without its antithesis, a quality of doggedness, endurance and perseverance;
(d) Creative people alternate between imagination and fantasy as well as a rooted sense of reality. Great art and great science involve a leap of imagination into a world that is different from the present;
(e) Creative people tend to be both extroverted and introverted. In psychological research, extroversion and introversion are considered the most stable personality traits that differentiate people from each other and that can be reliably measured. Creative individuals seem to exhibit both traits simultaneously;
(f) Creative people are humble and proud at the same time. Their respect for the area in which they work makes them aware of the long line of previous contributions to it, putting their own in perspective. At the same time, they know that in comparison with others, they have accomplished a great deal. This knowledge provides a sense of security, even pride;
(g) Creative people, to an extent, escape rigid gender role stereotyping. When
tests of masculinity or femininity are given to young people, over and over
one finds that creative and talented girls are more dominant and tough
than other girls, and creative boys are more sensitive and less aggressive
than their male peers;
(h) Creative people are both rebellious and conservative. It is impossible to be
creative without having first internalised an area of culture. So it is difficult
to see how a person can be creative without being both traditional and
conservative and at the same time rebellious and iconoclastic;
(i) Most creative people are very passionate about their work, yet they can be extremely objective about it as well. Without the passion, we soon lose interest in a difficult task. Yet without being objective about it, our work is not very good and lacks credibility; and
(j) Creative people's openness and sensitivity often expose them to suffering and pain, yet also to a great deal of enjoyment. Being alone at the forefront of a discipline also leaves you exposed and vulnerable.
Some researchers have conducted historiometric studies using a large sample size of successfully creative individuals. Historiometric studies quantify the otherwise qualitative characteristics of test cases, looking at their developmental, differential and social backgrounds, for example. This research supports the idea that individuals must develop in-depth domain expertise to be creative. The esearch concludes that creative output is linked to the amount of time a person is actively engaged in a creative domain (Adams, 2005).
ACTIVITY 1.4
1. Torrance and Safter (1999) have identified some of the most
important creative abilities. Explain those abilities and compare
them with the characteristics of creative people identified by
Dacey (1985).
2. Rank in order each of the following characteristics of creativity
from 1 to 7 (1= most important, 7= least important). Then:
(a) Compare your rank and your friendÊs rank.
(b) Explain the similarities or differences.
(c) Creativity tends to be subjective, and breaking it down into
categories may help you understand why people do not
always agree about the meaning of creativity. What is your
interpretation of creativity? Your Rank Your Friend's Rank
Unusual or dramatic: Bizarre or out-of-the-box.
Attention-getting: Get audiences to literally stop and take notice.
Interesting: Can you succeed if you get the audienceÊs attention but they
do not care to read on?
Unique or original: Some people insist that creativity be original.
After all, it is "creative".
Attractive: Traits such as beauty or high-quality production standards.
On-brand: Importance of staying loyal to a company or product
brand.
Understandable: Without understanding, everything else is
wasted.
3. Fast Company (www.fastcompany.com) has released their yearly
list of the 100 Most Creative People in Business. The list is
composed of successful people who have proved to create
"massive value in the business world through their creativity and
influence". Study the latest list and:
(a) Identify the top five people in the list.
(b) Identify your own choice of five most creative people from the list.
(c) Identify some of their fields or areas of specialisation.
(d) Discuss some of the creative ideas, inspirations, lessons and tips worth sharing.
1.6 THE CREATIVE INDUSTRY
All around the world, the creative and cultural economy is talked about as an
important and growing part of the global economy. The term refers to the socio-
economic potential of activities that trade with creativity, knowledge and
information. Governments and creative sectors across the world are increasingly
recognising its importance as a generator of jobs, wealth and cultural
engagement.
At the heart of the creative economy are the cultural and creative industries that
lie at the crossroads of arts, culture, business and technology. What unifies these
activities is the fact that they all trade with creative assets in the form of
intellectual property (IP); the framework through which creativity translates into
economic value.
The term creative industries" encompasses an array of commercial and economic activities and their derivatives. Since creative industries may include
such a wide range of activities, there has been much discussion on the appropriate reach of their boundaries.
There are currently five different approaches that address the classification and
organisation of the categories which make up the creative industries
(Hendrickson, Lugay, Caldentey, Mulder & Alvarez, 2012). These approaches are
based on five different creative industry models designed by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United
Kingdom Department of Culture and Media Sport (UKDCMS), the symbolic
texts, concentric circles and the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO).
The UNESCO approach regards the cultural industries as the main segment of
the creative industries. It defines cultural industries as those that combine
creation, production and commercialisation of contents, which are intangible and
cultural in nature and are generally protected by copyright. It takes the form of a
good or service.These industries include the audio visual sector, printing and
publishing, film, crafts and design and multimedia among others. The creative
industries are a broader set of activities that include cultural activities and others
that are based on artistic and creative content, such as advertising and
architecture.
The UNESCO approach is a more comprehensive approach which is also similiar
to that of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
(2010). In the UNCTAD definition, creative industries are those related to the
creation, production and distribution of goods and services that use creativity
and intellectual capital as main inputs.
The second approach is that of DCMS, which defines creative industries as those
which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent. It has the
potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of
intellectual property. This model does not include the word „cultural‰ in the
definition of creative industries.
The third approach is the concentric model. This model focuses on the place of
creative ideas which comprises three layers. The first or the core layer
encompasses film, museums, performing arts, libraries, literature, visual arts,
craft and contemporary art. The second layer covers newspapers, publishing,
book and magazine, heritage services, television and radio, sound recording,
video and computer games. The third layer comprises advertising, architectural
and design services and fashion. The concentric model considers that cultural
goods and services represent economic and cultural elements. This assertion can
be used to define cultural goods and services as a distinct commodity.
The first three approaches emphasise the intellectual property aspect of creative
industries, creative or cultural origin of goods or services and the
commercialisation or wealth and job creation in the creative industries. In this
regard, they are related to the WIPO model. The fourth approach is the Symbolic
Texts. This is based on industries concerned with industrial production and
dissemination of symbolic texts.
The fifth approach is the WIPO copyright model (WIPO, 2003) which defines creative industries from an intellectual property rights approach. WIPO places the focus on copyright which is a concept that can be defined and measured and which encompasses issues associated with that of creativity such as a set of economic rights as well as the balance between individual and public interest.
Table 1.2 summarises the creativity industry approaches.
Table 1.2: Creativity Industry Approaches
Approach Description
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
Those that combine creation, production and commercialisation of contents, which are intangible and cultural in nature and are generally protected by copyright.
United Kingdom Those which have their origin in individual creativity, skill
Department of Culture and talent. It has the potential for wealth and job creation
and Media Sport through the generation and exploitation of intellectual
(UKDCMS) property.
Concentric Model -
Focusing on the place of origin of creative ideas. It comprises several layers.
Symbolic Texts
Based on industries concerned with industrial production and dissemination of symbolic texts.
World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO).
Focusing on copyright which is a set of economic rights, the balance between individual and public interest, a financial mechanism to reward creators and an economic concept.
The creative industries constitute a set of knowledge-based activities, focused on but not limited to arts, and it has the potential of generating revenues from trade as well as from intellectual property rights. Creative industries comprise tangible products and intangible intellectual or artistic services. It has creative content, economic value and market objectives. They range from traditional arts and crafts, publishing, music and visual as well as performing arts to more technology-intensive and service-oriented activities such as film, television and radio broadcasting, new media and design.
Creative industries are considered at the crossroads of artisan, services and industrial sectors. It is now seen to constitute a dynamic new sector in world trade. UNCTAD calls the creative economy "an evolving concept based on creative assets" and that it can foster "income generation, job creation and export earnings" (UNCTAD, 2008).
Table 1.3 lists the industries considered "creative" in WIPO and UNCTAD models.
Table 1.3: WIPO and UNCTAD Models of Creative Industries
WIPO Models UNCTAD Models
? Core copyright industries ? Heritage and Traditional cultural
Advertising expressions
Collecting societies Arts and crafts
Film and video Festivals and
Music Celebrations
Performing arts
Publishing ? Cultural sites
Software Archaeological sites
Television and radio Museums
Visual and graphic arts Art Galleries
Libraries
? Interdependent copyright industries Exhibitions
Blank recording material
Consumer electronics ? Visual arts
Musical instruments Paintings
Paper Sculpture
Photocopiers, photographic equipment Photography
Antiques
? Partial copyright industries
Architecture ? Performing arts
Live music
Theatre
Dance
In the world economy, creative industries have become a new engine of growth
and development. This dynamic sector, which ranges from traditional arts to
multimedia, has been an important driver of innovation and productivity
growth.
In the European Union, the UK has the largest creative sector. In terms of GDP it
has been the largest in the world and the most successful exporter of cultural
goods and services in the world, ahead of even the US. The UK government
has taken a major role in developing the creative economy agenda, as well as
further policy strategies and interventions (British Council website at
www.creativeconomy.britishcouncil.org).
In Malaysia, much focus is given to the development of its creative industries.
With innovation being the key national agenda to transform the nation into a
high income economy, the creative industry has been identified as a key
component instrumental to boost gross national income.
The data from the Malaysian Department of Statistics from 2000 to 2005 revealed
that the creative industries recorded an annual growth rate of 11 per cent,
surpassing the national growth rate of almost seven per cent. Employment
expansion in the creative industries registered a growth of about 11 per cent
which exceeds the national employment growth of three per cent. During that
period, creative industries contributed almost six per cent of the gross domestic
product (GDP). This is about one per cent of national exports and seven per cent
of employment nationwide (www.bernama.com).
These figures demonstrate that creative industries are the drivers of the economy
and are more dynamic than many of the other sectors in Malaysia. Deputy Prime
Minister Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin in November 2013 said that the creative
industry was on a strong footing when it garnered an income of RM7 billion in
2012 and this contributed an amount of RM1.9 billion to national GDP. He also
said that the government continued to emphasise the development of the creative
industry which was expected to generate RM16.1 billion in income by the end of
2013 (www.business.malaysia.my).
ACTIVITY 1.5
Indonesia promotes its creativity through the Presidential Instruction
No. 6/2009 and formed the Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry in
2011. The country has enormous cultural potential that is spread across
more than 1,300 ethnicities. In 2007, the Yokohama meeting picked
Bandung as one of its creative city pilot projects in East Asia. In
Indonesia, creative city pilot projects were also designed for Yogyakarta
and Surakarta. Through these projects the ministry helps the cities to
highlight and promote their creative economy potential.
Using the Internet, conduct a brief research on at least two creative
cities in Southeast Asia. For each city, write not more than 1000-word
report comprising the following points:
(a) Profile of the city; and
(b) Creative economy agenda.
The Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) forecasts that the creative
industry will bring about a RM35.7 billion incremental increase to reach RM58
billion by 2020. The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission
(MCMC/SKMM) in April 2014 approved the establishment of the Creative
Industry Development Fund (CIDF-MCMC) with the budget of RM100 million
for the next three years.
The fund aims "to facilitate and encourage Malaysians" in the involvement
of the creation, production and distribution of highly creative, original and
marketable multimedia content for domestic and international markets
(www.skmm.gov.my).
The specific objectives of the fund are to fulfil the following intents; to develop
Malaysia as a major global centre and a hub for multimedia information and
content services; to develop creative digital multimedia content as a new source
of growth for Malaysia in achieving the high income economy status; to populate
the deployed networks with quality, value-based and meaningful content in
the achievement of national agenda; to assist the development of television
content since there is no specific body responsible for the development of
television content; and in cognisance with the introduction of Digital Terrestrial
Television Broadcasting (DTTB) and the increase in broadband penetration
(www.skmm.gov.my).
ACTIVITY 1.6
1. According to UNESCO, the UK has been the most successful
exporter of cultural goods and services in the world, ahead of the
US. The UK government has taken a major role in developing the
creative economy agenda as well as further policy strategies and
interventions. Find out more detailed information from the
Internet to justify the claim.
2. The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission in April 2014 has approved the establishment of the Creative Industry Development Fund to facilitate and encourage Malaysians involvement in the creation, production and distribution of highly creative, original and marketable multimedia content for domestic and international markets. From its website, find out more about the fund in terms of its category, application process and criteria. Also discuss how the fund will be able to achieve its objectives. Ahead of the US, the UK government has taken a major role in developing the creative economy agenda as well as further policy strategies and interventions. Find out more detailed information from the Internet to justify the claim.
? Creativity can be described as the production of useful solutions to problems or new and interesting ideas, which create products and impact thinking. The goal of creative performance is to add knowledge and understanding as well as to give new perspectives and to solve problems.
? Creativity arises through the convergence of three components namely knowledge or expertise, creative thinking and motivation. Expertise refers to technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge while creative thinking means approaching problems imaginatively and flexibly. Motivation is an internal process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviours.
? Various models of the creative thinking process have been proposed which
include the Psychodynamic Model, the Personality Model, the Psychometric
Model, the Problem Solving Model and the Constraints Model.
? A high level of creative achievement can be reached from those who have
creative motivation and skills necessary to allow for creative abilities. People
who have a high level of creative ability and skill may become creative
achievers, if the creative motivations can be enhanced, and people who have
creative abilities and motivations can become achievers if they have the
required creative skills.
? All around the world, the creative and cultural economy has become a
growing part of the global economy. Governments and creative sectors across
the world are increasingly recognising the importance of cultural industries
as a generator of jobs, wealth and cultural engagement. The term „creative
industries‰ encompasses an array of commercial and economic activities and
their derivatives.
Creativity Motivation
Creative industries Originality
Innovation Problem solving
Adams, K. (2005). The sources of innovation and creativity . New York, NY: National Center on Education and the Economy.
Amabile, T. M. (1998). How to kill creativity . Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Amabile, T. M. (2005). Lean forward media. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The magical synthesis. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process . New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Boden, M.A. (1998). Creativity and artificial intelligence. Artificial Intelligence, 103(1), 347356.
British Council. (2015). Retrieved from http://creativeconomy.british council.org
Business Malaysia. (2013). Retrieved from www.business.malaysia.my
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: The Work and Lives of 91 Eminent People . New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Dacey, S. J. (1985). Fundamentals of creative thinking . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Franken, R. E. (1982). Human motivation. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Fearn, L. (1976). Individual development: A process model in creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 1(10), 5564.
Gerlovina, Z. (2011). Eureka! Unravelling the mystery behind creativity. Retrieved from http://academiccommons. columbia.edu.
Gomez, J. G. (2007). What do we know about creativity? The Journal of Effective Teaching, 7 (1), 3143.
Hendrickson, M., Lugay B., Caldentey E. P., Mulder N., Alvarez, M. (2012). Creative industries in the Caribbean: A new road for diversification and export growth . Port of Spain: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean.
Kirton, M. (1987). Adaptors and innovators: Cognitive style and personality. In S.
G. Isaksen (Eds.), Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics .
Buffallo, NY: Bearly Limited.
Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commision. (2015). Retrieved from
www.skmm.gov.my.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The motivational sources of
creativity as viewed from the paradigm of positive psychology. In
Aspinwall, L. G., & Staudinger, U. M. (Eds.). A psychology of human
strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive
psychology (pp. 257269). Washington, DC.: American Psychological
Association.
Nurturing community to promote effective use of technology. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.celt.iastate.edu/.
Torrance, E. P., & Safter, H. T. (1999). Making the creative leap beyond . Hadley, MA: Creative Education Foundation Press.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2008). Retrieved from http://unctad.org
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2010). Retrieved from http://unctad.org
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). (2003). Annual Report. Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/index.html
Young, F. L. (1990). Knowledge-based systems for idea processing support . New York, NY: ACM Press.
No comments:
Post a Comment