Unit 3 Communication
Theories II
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the strong connection between communication and culture;
2. Explain the standpoint theory;
3. Explain the speech community theory;
4. Explain the organisational culture theory;
5. Explain the technological determinism theory;
6. Explain the cultivation theory;
7. Explain the feminist theories;
8. Explain the muted group theory;
9. Explain the cultural studies theories;
10. Explain the post-modern theorising;
11. Evaluate the theories based on the standards discussed in unit 1;
12. Apply the theories in daily lives;
13. Elaborate the nature and objective of theorising in communication;
14. Explain the uses of communication theories in daily lives;
15. Explain the importance of theory as scholarly pursuit; and
16. Evaluate the future of communication as an academic discipline.
INTRODUCTION
Unit 3 covers five chapters in the textbook, namely Chapter 10, Chapter 11, Chapter 12, Chapter 13, and Chapter 14. Chapter 10 discusses a number of theories related to culture and speech community. Chapter 11 focuses on mass communication theories; and Chapter 12 discusses about critical
communication theories. Chapter 13 will consider the topic regarding postmodern theorising. Chapter 14 is the closing chapter in the textbook. This chapter will review what have been discussed in the previous units, and analyse how the theories are beneficial to enrich the knowledge, the level of
scholarly and our daily lives. This unit also aim to guide students to consider the limitations of
communication theory and what may happen.
PRETEST
Before you start reading, students are encouraged to try and answer the following pre-test questions first.
Answer (T) for True statements and (F) for False statements.
Questions Descriptions Answers
1 Culture and communication are two entities that are related and influence each other.
2 Standpoint theory views relationship between ideology and community beliefs.
3 Speech community refers to a group that has one language of communication.
4 Organisational culture depends on the structure of organisation.
5 McLuhan suggested that biology is the major element that determines human life.
6 Cultivation theory discusses how television fosters beliefs about the reality of life among audience.
7 Feminism is an approach that view distribution in society based on class and ethnicity.
8 Muted group theory clarified women are discriminated groups in society as human language tends to be biased toward men.
9 Cultural studies theories focuses on historical and political conditions that affect life in societies.
10 Culture in cultural studies refer to ideology and practices in the society.
11 Communication scholars are not enthusiastic with the goals of theory to prediction and control.
12 Theory should be value free and objective.
13 Parsimony is a standard for evaluating theories.
14 Epistemology and ontology are important for developing theories.
15 Post-modern theories have been criticised for being nihilistic.
UNIT CHART
UNIT DESCRIPTION
This unit explains five chapters that discuss about four different groups of communication theories. However, not all theories in each group will be discussed; only specific theories of each group will be explained. The selection based on its influence and popularity in academic world and from the
perspective of application to the daily life.
Theories about Communication Communities Before discussing specific theories, it is important to explain about the relationships between communication and culture first. Communication and
culture are interdependent as communication creates, expresses, sustains and alters cultural life. Culture directly shapes how we communicate. Patterns of communication reflect our cultural values and perspectives. For example, Malay people respects experienced and older people, as described through Malay proverbs like tasted salt earlier, and golden age. Language is an element of culture that teaches us about cultural values, beliefs, and norms in our community. The language also reflects cultural values of personal identity. Western culture tends to emphasise individuals, whereas Eastern cultures place greater emphasis on collectivity. Thus, most Western parents provide a separate bed for each child, but for parents from the East, they often allow their children to sleep in the same room with them for several years. Thus, terms such as I, myself or me have positive connotations in Western societies. In contrast, Eastern societies view the words connote egoism or selfishness. Undoubtedly, communication both reflects and perpetuates culture (Refer pg. 209 ?? 211).
Standpoint theory is a cultural theory which claims that the social groups to which we belong powerfully shape what we experience and know as well as how we communicate. This is a new theory in the field of communication (Refer pg. 212 ?? 218).
Major scholars of standpoint theory include Collins, Haraway, Harding Hartsock, and Ruddick.
Five central ideas in standpoint theory are locations in cultural life, standpoint, situated knowledge, the accuracy of different standpoints and the outsider within. According to standpoint theorists, a culture is not experienced identically by all of its members. Instead, cultures are hierarchically ordered. Thus, different groups within them offer different power, opportunities and experiences. This idea has been influenced by Hegel who explained how different positions in a society influence our view as a whole. For instance, an individual from a higher position in the society (elite) view wealth, property and power as most important. In other words, poor people's experience will definitely be different from rich people. Thus, our locations in cultural life affect our life as
a whole.
Knowledge of individual is also affected by situation or what we experienced. Haraway coined the term as situated knowledges. Knowledge is not singular but plural, as it is resulted from different experiences. For example, women position as a mother in society cultivates maternal instinct, and men would not experience it. Experience by two different genders will result in different knowledge.
Since there are multiple perspectives in society, issue about the accuracy of different standpoints will arise. Standpoint theorists believed that some standpoint are more complete and thus more accurate than others. They explained that groups in positions of lesser power in a society have more comprehensive, accurate views of social life than groups that occupy higher positions in the social hierarchy. This is because people with subordinate status have greater motivation to understand the perspectives of more powerful groups than vice versa. Furthermore, they have no personal investment in maintaining, much less justifying the status quo.
Based on the standpoint theory, groups in positions of lesser power are more likely to arouse revolt to reduce or eliminate inequality. Within standpoint theory, the richest epistemological position is that of the outsider within.
How is the relationship between standpoints and communication? Standpoint theorists believed there have reciprocal relationship between communication and standpoints. They assumed that we develop standpoints by communicating with others in our groups (it is parallel with Mead's suggestion in symbolic interactional theory). We learn the values and meanings through communication with members of our groups.
At the same time, our standpoints influence how we communicate and how we interpret the communication of others. How we talk and the non-verbal behaviours in which we engage reflect the norms, meanings, and patterns of our social groups. For example, Malays will ask for forgiveness during Hari Raya. This practice might be surprising to Christian people. A Malay's standpoint towards Hari Raya is extremely different from Christians about Christmas. Undoubtedly, standpoints also influences on how we communicate.
Disadvantages and criticism of standpoint theory:
(a) Theory unjustifiably privileges marginalised standpoints.
(b) Theory obscures human diversity. (Refer pg. 218 ?? 220)
Speech community theory is a theory that focuses specifically on how different social groups teach members distinct styles of communicating and interpreting the communication of others. This theory much influenced by assumptions and idea consisted within standpointÊs theory (Refer pg. 220 ?? 226). The major scholars for speech community theory are Deborah Tannen, Suzanne Langer, Gerry Philipsen, Daniel Maltz and Ruth Borker.
In 1960's, Dell Hymes first introduced the speech community. Based on his ethnographic studies, Hymes proposed that speech community is a group of people who share not only a common language but also understanding of rules and norms that guide how members of the group practise and interpret speech activities. Main concepts of the theory are rules pertaining to communicative and
misunderstandings. This theory seeks to discover the genesis of distinct communication rules
practices by a social community. The communication rules are regular patterns in the use and interpretation of communication within particular groups. Rules are socially constructed rather than determined by forces outside of humans. To identify communication rules, scholars study interaction in particular groups, especially among the new or young members of the groups. The study investigated masculine and feminine speech communities (Refer Figure 10.1, pg. 224).
Misunderstandings can be explained clearly through speech community theory. Based on this theory, misunderstandings take place because of the different socialisation that happened between different groups, whether gender, ethnic or age perspectives (Refer pg. 223 ?? 224).
Disadvantages and criticism of speech community theory:
(a) Theory obscures human diversity.
(b) Theory fosters divisions among social groups.
(c) Theory is insufficiently critical. (Refer pg. 225 ?? 226)
Organisational Culture In this part, there are communication theories that focus on relationship
between communication and culture of the workplace. Organisational culture scholars describe and explain how communication creates, sustains and expresses the values and ideology of particular work environments. Organisational culture theories assume a reciprocal relationship between
culture and communication in which each shape is shaped by the other.
Now, the main focus of organisational culture theorists is to understand how organisational life is constituted through communication. Contemporary scholars for this theory are Michael Pacanowsky and O Donnell-Trujillo which strongly influenced by the work of anthropologist Clifford Geertz (Refer pg. 226 ?? 234).
Culture refers to the systems of shared or common meaning shared among community members (like standpoint and speech community theories). Geertz claimed that cultures are ways of life that are sustained through stories, rituals, and other symbolic activities that continuously vitalise and uphold by community.
Drawing on Geertz's general observations about culture, some organisational culture scholars have developed a theory that views organisations as cultures that are produced and reproduced through communication activities among members of organisations. Important elements in organisation are vocabulary, stories, rites and rituals (Refer pg. 227 ?? 232).
Organisational culture scholarsÊ built their theory on ethnographic research. Thus, like ethnographers in other areas of study, their research relies on thick description, that is, focus of the research is not only being given to the research finding, but also the method used to interpret the data about organisational life. Because engaging in thick description, it is extremely time consuming as
the scholars need to immerse themselves in what they studied. Apart from corporate stories, personal stories, collegial stories, rites and rituals in organisations, data for organisational culture can also be discovered in daily activities among members of organisation.
Disadvantages and criticism of organisational culture theory are as follows:
(a) Theory has limited generalisability.
Theories of Mass Communication
Mass communication refers to the communication process that aims at large audiences. Normally mass communication use tools and mediated technology like radio, television, books, magazines, computer programs and other forms of visual and print communication labelled as mass media. Mass media does not include personal kinds used by individual to interact with others on the Internet (e.g. e-mail or chatting). Two major theories discuss here are technological determinism and
cultivation theory (Refer pg. 237 ?? 256).
Technological determinism theory was developed by a popular communication scholar, Marshall McLuhan in 1960Ês. McLuhan believed that media as the critical force that determines other things. The theory of technological determinism stated that technology, especially media decisively
shapes how individuals think, feel and act and how societies organise themselves and operate.
In this situation, media history throughout the history of human civilisation is important. McLuhan claimed that the dominant media at any given time in a society determine the basis of social organisation and collective life. McLuhan divided history of human societies into four distinct media epochs:
(a) The tribal epoch
(b) The literate epoch
(c) The print epoch
(d) The electronic epoch (Refer pg. 238 ?? 239)
McLuhan is also popular because of his bold ideas or proclamations that changed our thinking about media. McLuhansÊs best-known idea is that the medium is the message. What is meant by him, is that the medium or channel of communication, determines the substance of communication and
influences our perception towards message (Refer pg. 240 ?? 242).
Moreover, McLuhan drew a basic distinction between hot and cold media. Hot media refers to mediums that include relatively complete sensory data. Thus, a person does not need to fill a lot of information to understand
the message. For example, radio, printed materials, photographs and films. On the other hand, cold media refers to mediums that demand involvement from individuals to understand its messages. An example of cold media includes telephone conversations, interactive computer games and face-to-face interactions. Hot media encourages individuals to be passive as the media supplied all information necessary for understanding and allow us to be uninvolved in learning and thinking. Cold media, in contrast, requires participation involvement and mental activity on our part. Thus, it encourages people to be active.
Disadvantages and criticism of technological determinism theory:
(a) Lack of empirical support
(b) Hyperbolic speculation
(c) Overly deterministic
Respond to the critics ?? McLuhan claimed that they are not creative. (Refer pg. 244)
Cultivation theory has been built on a long-term programme of empirical research. This theory claims that television cultivates or promotes a view of social reality that is synthetic, but the reality is influential in fostering viewers attitude, beliefs and behaviour (Refer pg. 244 ?? 249).
Major scholars for cultivation theory are George Gerbner and his colleagues at the Annenberg School of Communication in Pennsylvania, namely, Nancy Signorelli and M. Morgan.
The main concepts for this theory are cultivation, synthetic reality, mainstreaming and resonance.
Cultivation refers to the cumulative process by which television fosters specific beliefs about social reality. This meant, watching television over a long period of time has effects on viewers beliefs. Usually, heavy television viewers are more exposed to cultivation compared to light television viewers (Refer pg. 245 ?? 247).
Synthetic reality is a concept that refers to television portrayals of life influences peoples beliefs about real life. Viewers who watch a lot, tend to believe television as real life, unfortunately this is synthetic reality. Two mechanisms for the cultivation of synthetic reality are: mainstreaming and
resonance.
Mainstreaming is television's ability to stabilise and homogenise views within society. For example, if television features extensive violence in life, viewers may come to believe that violence is common. Thus, this view could permeate the mainstream in society.
Resonance is a level of comparisons between real experiences with synthetic reality as portrayed on television. For instance, a person who has been robbed, assaulted or raped is likely to identify with televised violence. Consequently, the reality of television is congruent with personal experiences. Cultivation process is easy to happen in such situation (Refer pg. 248 ?? 249).
Among the important assumptions of Cultivation Theory:
(a) Television is unique.
(b) Television forms the cultural mainstream.
(c) Television cultivates broad assumptions about life rather than specific attitudes and opinions (e.g. Man world syndrome).
(d) Television is a medium of conservative socialisation.
(e) The observable effects of television on culture are relatively small.
(f) New technologies extend televisionÊs influence.
(Refer pg. 249 ?? 252)
Disadvantages and criticisms of cultivation theory:
(a) Weak support for the theory.
(b) Incompatibilities in the theory.
(c) Neglects individual variations.
(d) Correlation versus cause; cause versus effect. Response to the criticisms ?? Gerbner rejected the criticisms. (Refer pg. 255 ?? 256)
Critical Communication Theories
Critical theories are group of communication theories that embrace the goal of reforming social life in society. Three critical theories discussed here are feminist theories, muted group theory and cultural studies theories. Feminist theories are method that study about society based on gender inequities. Feminist scholars view the distribution of society based on gender and this distribution has raised an issue about womenÊs oppression by men who are considered as dominant in society. Key concepts in feminist theories are gender, patriarchy, a patriarchal universal discourse, and multiple ways of
knowing (Refer pg. 260 ?? 265).
According to feminist scholars, gender is socially created system of values, identities and activities that are prescribed for women and men. Unlike sex, which is biologically determined, gender refers to socially produced meanings that are imposed on individuals based on time. This construction affects the relationships between women and men, thus leads to certain expectations like their roles and positions in society.
Patriarchy refers to an overall system of structures and practices in society that is concerned with values and interests of men as a group and protect their privileges, while simultaneously denying the values and interests of women as a group. It is also a social construction that was originally created by men who once dominated public life.
A patriarchal universal discourse refers to a set of language conventions that reflect a particular definition of reality. As shown by history, culture has been dominated by a masculine universe of discourse that accords priority to masculine compared to feminine. For example, the term such as housewife referred to women while men is reputed as head of the family. Feminist theorists, like many other communication theorists believe that language powerfully shapes our views of the world.
Multiple ways of knowing has been suggested by feminist theorists for the world to acknowledge other multiple ways besides masculine ways or a patriarchal universe of discourse. This is to revise the views of women's position and experiences in society are less or not important compared to men.
For instance, child care and homemaking are equally important with men working to earn income.
Criticisms of feminist theories focus on issues about social inequities between women and men:
(a) Inclusion stage ?? to increase awareness of what are experienced and what should be done to change gender construction.
(b) Revisionist stage ?? to broaden women participation in non-traditional activities and re-evaluate activities in which women have traditionally participated.
Disadvantages and criticisms of feminist theories:
(a) Fosters divisions between women and men (Refer pg. 284 ?? 285).
(b) Overstates and distorts gender differences.
(c) A monolithic view of women. (Refer pg. 265 ?? 267)
Muted group theory is a feminist theory that focuses on language and gender. Two distinctive features of the theory are:
(a) Focus on how language names experiences and therefore determines what us socially recognised in society;
(b) Close attention to the way that a dominant discourse silences, or mutes, groups that are not in the mainstream society.
Scholars for this theory include Edwin Ardener, Shirley Ardener, Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender (Refer pg. 267 ?? 273).
Major concepts that have shaped this theory are masculine bias, muted language/muted experience, and the power to name. Besides that, the theory also outlined the ways to resist dominant discourses.
Masculine bias is a pioneer concept in muted group theory. According to anthropologists Edwin Ardener and Shirley Ardener, many anthropological investigations relied entirely on male, thus the investigations were only able to explain men's experiences compared to women. This is because males generally dominate public life and consequently create the language and meanings of a culture. Masculine bias is a result from this situation? men's experiences are regarded as the entire experience of mankind, whereas women's experiences are set aside.
Since the public sphere has been dominated by men, its language or terms that names the experiences and works of men also dominate the language, thus women lack the terms to name their experiences. This situation makes women less at ease to participate in public discourse, where their experiences and language will be muted.
Hence, we tend to see the world in terms of men's perspectives. Muted group theorists do not blame men for having intentionally creating the situation. They only state that if one group of society creates a language to describe the life of all members, than another group will be muted. For example, the word childbirth that refers to the experience of giving birth is described from a male point of view. Nowadays, the word birthing is often used to describe women's experience in the process of giving birth. This is the evidence as mentioned by Spender about how influential is the power of language in giving the authority of naming to a group.
To resist dominant discourses in most societies which are decidedly masculine, women are suggested to create their own language to name their experiences. Penelope, Kramarae, Treichler and Elgin are among the women scholars that have done it. Elgin invented an entire language, called Laadan, to
capture women's experiences and interests. Kramarae and Treichler published A Feminist Dictionary as an effort to resist dominant discourses.
Disadvantages and criticisms of muted group theory:
(a) Exaggerates women's oppression.
(b) The purpose is to politicise women's struggle.
(c) Unrealistic. (Refer pg. 272 ?? 273)
Cultural studies theories are group of theory which discusses the way culture is actually produced, reproduced and changed through struggles among differing ideologies. Cultural studies do not have a single focus, but it is interested in the historical and political conditions that affect life in societies,
thus it often changes based on particular moments and conditions (Refer pg. 271 ?? 283).
Stuart Hall, John Storey, Larry Grossberg and John Fiske are among the major scholars for cultural studies. Culture refers to the texts and practices of everyday life that bring particular effects. According to cultural studies theorists, culture has two facets: firstly, culture consists of ideas, values, beliefs and understandings that are common and guide the activities and customs of the society; secondly, culture refers to the actual concrete practices characteristic of a society. These two dimensions of culture are interlinked and inseparable. Practices reflect the ideology of a society,
whereas the ideology of society is a guide for practices (Refer pg. 275 ?? 276).
The concept of ideological domination is central to cultural studies. This concept refers to a set of ideas that has the greatest power in society and adherence by most members of the society. This is done through social institutions such as government, schools, legislatures, churches and temples,
and etc. These institutions function to legitimise the prevailing ideology in society and to suppress, marginalise and silence other competing ideologies. Recently, one more institution has shown an interest to become a potent tool for ideological domination the media. An example of ideological domination through media: men are portrayed as organisational leaders, strong, intelligent and brave, while women are portrayed as housewives and always dependent on men.
The media receive extensive attention from cultural studies scholars because its influence in fortifying dominant ideologies in society. Focus of cultural studies scholar is how media become a site of battle for differing ideological. For instance, mainstream media in Malaysia often become a tool for powerful people, whereas no coverage is given to the opposition parties through the
mainstream media. The battle of ideology will be more obvious, especially during the election. Thus, media is a platform of struggle for strengthening different ideologies (Refer pg. 276 ?? 278).
Within cultural studies, it is assumed that no single cause determines ideological domination; moreover, there are numerous interlinked causes that responsible in fortifying ideological domination. Overdetermination is a concept that refers to this fact (Refer pg. 279 ?? 280).
There are three ways individuals may respond to dominant ideology through media:
(a) Uncritical acceptance of the dominant ideology.
(b) Justify the acceptance of dominant ideology through practices and cultural institution.
(c) Oppose the dominant ideology by recognising its actual goal and search for an alternative ideology.
Disadvantages and criticisms of cultural studies theories:
(a) Inaccessible
(b) Too broad in scope
(c) Lack attention to gender
(d) Too ideological (Refer pg. 281 ?? 283)
Post-modern Theorising.
Latest development in academic world has shown the importance of several new approaches that affect the theorising development in communication. Chapter 13 will focus on postmodernism that influences the process of communication theorising in the 20th century. Its emergence marks the new era after the modern period in Western social life.
There are two key concepts in discussing post-modern theorising, namely, modernity and postmodern. Modernism movement challenges the importance of moral values and religions. In contrast, it emphasises on sciences (as science is perceived to be neutral, objective and key to the human progress and development).
Hence, an individual will be assessed based on logical consideration not spiritual and emotional considerations. Modernist views individuals as rational, coherent and autonomous. They believe that individuals with such characters can produce a stable and coherent society (Refer pg. 286 ?? 288).
Postmodernism, that encompasses a broader perspective of social life and research is an intellectual and political movement that challenges modernist notions about social order. Postmodernists believed that individual and society are not consistent entities but continuously changing and revolting that reflect its surrounding. They view human beings as a kaleidoscope that always form and re-form themselves at particular time and place. Gergen refers to this as a relational self as identity comes into being as we participate in a particular relationship.
Post-modernist theorists also refer to individual as a subject because the concept is suitable for something that continuously construct and reconstruct themselves and subject to place and time. Subject is fragmented, multiple and relational self ?? not coherent autonomous and stable as claimed by modern theorists (Refer pg. 287 ?? 288, 294).
Post-modern scholars view human behaviour as localised action, namely, behaviour that affects and is influenced by institution and social practices that happen and experienced at this time. For post-modern scholars, the concepts of society and culture are fictional representation that does not really exist. Moreover, postmodernists view society as a collage of many different communities, each with own experiences, understandings and ways of living that continues in a dynamic flux. Transformation is a key concept in this approach. Postmodernists believe in the concept of pluralism. Most postmodernists also reject universal standards in cultural life as they recognise that people in
diverse circumstances and with diverse experiences will have different views (refer pg. 289).
If modernists believed in grand narratives, postmodernists challenged the narrative. This fuelled a number of new theories that sought to make sense of more limited spheres of social life (Refer pg. 291 - 292).
As postmodernists do not believe in grand narratives, thus they do not believe in society efforts as a whole, and they are uncertain about the stable and coherent society as suggested by modernists because the localised action can be seen through resistance at the local level and micro politics.
A particularly important postmodernist claim is that all phenomena, including people, are made into commodities - through the process of commodification.
Postmodernists claim that members of society were valued not for what they could produce but how much and how fast they could produce. Post-modern theories consider language the most important means by which subjects and the social order are constituted, normalised, reproduced,
challenged and changed (Refer pg. 299 ).
Meaning refers to something that arises and can only be understood from interaction between subject and language. According to Derrida, there is no single word that can represent a meaning as the word is incomplete. Every single word is sous rature, namely inadequate to describe its referent.
Meaning of every single word depends very much on its words before and after, and also the context of interaction experienced by the subject. Post-modern theorists assume that social relations, like subjects, language and meaning are constructed by social institutions and practices. Foucoult has
proposed the idea that the world view of a society is determined by discursive structures of the era (Refer pg. 299 ?? 302).
Discursive structures are deep ways of thinking about and expressing identity and conducting social life. For example, individualism is a main philosophy held by Western societies, while collectivism is very much appreciated by Eastern societies. Discursive structures have very big influences on social
relations in society. If discursive structures continuously shape and reshaped by the prevailing world view, thus social relations also will constantly changing in that way.
According to Foucault again, discourses in a society are controlled by powerful people that specify the rules to define which topics can and cannot be discussed; who may talk and who may not, and etc.
The criticisms toward post-modern perspectives:
(a) The epistemic relativism is unacceptable.
(b) Nihilistic ?? denial of any absolute basis for development of values, meanings, moral and social order.
(c) The end of human identity. (Refer pg. 302 ?? 306)
Chapter 14 reviews what have been learned throughout your exploration about specific communication theories in the textbook. It discusses the value of communication theories in knowledge and also their benefit in our daily lives. The future of communication theories is also discussed. The outcome from the discussion about communication theories is summarised in general perspectives of theorising process and reviewing the theories.
Within theorising process, communication scholars are not enthusiastic to the orthodox goals of theory. Among the controversies of the theoretical goals are:
(a) All scholars disagree the goal of theory is to predict and control; the goal of understanding is given priority.
(b) Scholars also add that the goal of theory is to bring positive social change in society.
(c) Theories are not value-free but value-laden, thus each scholar is responsible for their respective theory. (Refer pg. 308 ?? 310)
There are many standards used by scholars for evaluating theories; however they are unable to decide the hierarchy for ranking the importance of standards (which one is most important and so on) (Refer pg. 310 ?? 312).
When reviewing the theories covered in Chapter 4 until Chapter 13, it is clear that there are numerous communication theories that differ in focus and premise. Most important to remember is the difference from the perspectives of philosophical foundations and views of communication.
In terms of philosophical foundations, communication theories are varying in epistemological and ontological assumptions. Try to confirm these assumptions in the theories that you have studied.
From the views of communication also, we find that theories are different. You could confirm this matter by doing an activity Âtry it outÊ, at page 314 (Refer pg. 312 ?? 315).
A plurality of communication theories is very valuable and important for knowledge and our daily lives. We should also realise that, since philosophical foundations and theories assumptions are different, theories are not always compatible. For example, dramatism and narrative theories fit well
together, while CMM theory is less compatible with technological determinism theory. However, a plurality of communication theories must be appreciated (Refer pg. 315).
Putting theories into practice could help us cultivate understanding within certain contexts and also promote social progress (Refer pg. 315 ?? 319).
Communication theories arise in specific social contexts. It emerges from within social life and is not separated from it. The process of theorising happens as a result from the continuous efforts by scholars to find an answer to the observed phenomena both personally or within a society. Moreover,
cultural influences on theory building and development. For example, most Western theories of communication focuses on individualism, while theories developed in Asian societies are more likely to emphasise on the collective aspects (Refer pg. 319 ?? 320).
The future of communication theories are significantly influenced by the trend and disorder situation that happens in society and the world as a whole. However, the theories discussed in this textbook would certainly endure and develop according to time and situation.
TUTORIAL 3.1
Students are required to discuss activities includes as Try it out in all four chapters of Unit 3 ?? pg. 215, 225, 230, 241, 248, 251, 263, 270, 271, 276, 278, 300, 303, 311, 314 and 319.
TUTORIAL 3.2
Students are also required to explain meaning of each key term at the end of each chapter in Unit 3 ?? pg. 235, 258, 284 and 307.
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the relationships between communication and culture.
2. How are our attitudes influenced by our social locations?
3. What is meant by speech communities?
4. Explain the meaning of organisation as cultures.
5. What is meant by McLuhan with the phrase the medium is the message?
6. How does television shape the mainstream culture in society based on cultivation theory?
7. What is the correlation between gender and power based on feminism?
8. Within muted group theory, why is the power to name equivalent to the power to construct reality?
9. Explain the meaning of culture as proposed by cultural studies scholars.
10. Explain two major issues that were debated by communication scholars in the process of theorising.
11. Explain two major differences that influence the building of theories you have learned in this course.
12. Discuss how communication theory helps human life.
13. Explain the latest approaches that influence current communication scholars.
14. Explain the key concepts that become the focus of post-modern scholars.
15. Why is post-modern method said to be nihilistic?
Theories II
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the strong connection between communication and culture;
2. Explain the standpoint theory;
3. Explain the speech community theory;
4. Explain the organisational culture theory;
5. Explain the technological determinism theory;
6. Explain the cultivation theory;
7. Explain the feminist theories;
8. Explain the muted group theory;
9. Explain the cultural studies theories;
10. Explain the post-modern theorising;
11. Evaluate the theories based on the standards discussed in unit 1;
12. Apply the theories in daily lives;
13. Elaborate the nature and objective of theorising in communication;
14. Explain the uses of communication theories in daily lives;
15. Explain the importance of theory as scholarly pursuit; and
16. Evaluate the future of communication as an academic discipline.
INTRODUCTION
Unit 3 covers five chapters in the textbook, namely Chapter 10, Chapter 11, Chapter 12, Chapter 13, and Chapter 14. Chapter 10 discusses a number of theories related to culture and speech community. Chapter 11 focuses on mass communication theories; and Chapter 12 discusses about critical
communication theories. Chapter 13 will consider the topic regarding postmodern theorising. Chapter 14 is the closing chapter in the textbook. This chapter will review what have been discussed in the previous units, and analyse how the theories are beneficial to enrich the knowledge, the level of
scholarly and our daily lives. This unit also aim to guide students to consider the limitations of
communication theory and what may happen.
PRETEST
Before you start reading, students are encouraged to try and answer the following pre-test questions first.
Answer (T) for True statements and (F) for False statements.
Questions Descriptions Answers
1 Culture and communication are two entities that are related and influence each other.
2 Standpoint theory views relationship between ideology and community beliefs.
3 Speech community refers to a group that has one language of communication.
4 Organisational culture depends on the structure of organisation.
5 McLuhan suggested that biology is the major element that determines human life.
6 Cultivation theory discusses how television fosters beliefs about the reality of life among audience.
7 Feminism is an approach that view distribution in society based on class and ethnicity.
8 Muted group theory clarified women are discriminated groups in society as human language tends to be biased toward men.
9 Cultural studies theories focuses on historical and political conditions that affect life in societies.
10 Culture in cultural studies refer to ideology and practices in the society.
11 Communication scholars are not enthusiastic with the goals of theory to prediction and control.
12 Theory should be value free and objective.
13 Parsimony is a standard for evaluating theories.
14 Epistemology and ontology are important for developing theories.
15 Post-modern theories have been criticised for being nihilistic.
UNIT CHART
UNIT DESCRIPTION
This unit explains five chapters that discuss about four different groups of communication theories. However, not all theories in each group will be discussed; only specific theories of each group will be explained. The selection based on its influence and popularity in academic world and from the
perspective of application to the daily life.
Theories about Communication Communities Before discussing specific theories, it is important to explain about the relationships between communication and culture first. Communication and
culture are interdependent as communication creates, expresses, sustains and alters cultural life. Culture directly shapes how we communicate. Patterns of communication reflect our cultural values and perspectives. For example, Malay people respects experienced and older people, as described through Malay proverbs like tasted salt earlier, and golden age. Language is an element of culture that teaches us about cultural values, beliefs, and norms in our community. The language also reflects cultural values of personal identity. Western culture tends to emphasise individuals, whereas Eastern cultures place greater emphasis on collectivity. Thus, most Western parents provide a separate bed for each child, but for parents from the East, they often allow their children to sleep in the same room with them for several years. Thus, terms such as I, myself or me have positive connotations in Western societies. In contrast, Eastern societies view the words connote egoism or selfishness. Undoubtedly, communication both reflects and perpetuates culture (Refer pg. 209 ?? 211).
Standpoint theory is a cultural theory which claims that the social groups to which we belong powerfully shape what we experience and know as well as how we communicate. This is a new theory in the field of communication (Refer pg. 212 ?? 218).
Major scholars of standpoint theory include Collins, Haraway, Harding Hartsock, and Ruddick.
Five central ideas in standpoint theory are locations in cultural life, standpoint, situated knowledge, the accuracy of different standpoints and the outsider within. According to standpoint theorists, a culture is not experienced identically by all of its members. Instead, cultures are hierarchically ordered. Thus, different groups within them offer different power, opportunities and experiences. This idea has been influenced by Hegel who explained how different positions in a society influence our view as a whole. For instance, an individual from a higher position in the society (elite) view wealth, property and power as most important. In other words, poor people's experience will definitely be different from rich people. Thus, our locations in cultural life affect our life as
a whole.
Knowledge of individual is also affected by situation or what we experienced. Haraway coined the term as situated knowledges. Knowledge is not singular but plural, as it is resulted from different experiences. For example, women position as a mother in society cultivates maternal instinct, and men would not experience it. Experience by two different genders will result in different knowledge.
Since there are multiple perspectives in society, issue about the accuracy of different standpoints will arise. Standpoint theorists believed that some standpoint are more complete and thus more accurate than others. They explained that groups in positions of lesser power in a society have more comprehensive, accurate views of social life than groups that occupy higher positions in the social hierarchy. This is because people with subordinate status have greater motivation to understand the perspectives of more powerful groups than vice versa. Furthermore, they have no personal investment in maintaining, much less justifying the status quo.
Based on the standpoint theory, groups in positions of lesser power are more likely to arouse revolt to reduce or eliminate inequality. Within standpoint theory, the richest epistemological position is that of the outsider within.
How is the relationship between standpoints and communication? Standpoint theorists believed there have reciprocal relationship between communication and standpoints. They assumed that we develop standpoints by communicating with others in our groups (it is parallel with Mead's suggestion in symbolic interactional theory). We learn the values and meanings through communication with members of our groups.
At the same time, our standpoints influence how we communicate and how we interpret the communication of others. How we talk and the non-verbal behaviours in which we engage reflect the norms, meanings, and patterns of our social groups. For example, Malays will ask for forgiveness during Hari Raya. This practice might be surprising to Christian people. A Malay's standpoint towards Hari Raya is extremely different from Christians about Christmas. Undoubtedly, standpoints also influences on how we communicate.
Disadvantages and criticism of standpoint theory:
(a) Theory unjustifiably privileges marginalised standpoints.
(b) Theory obscures human diversity. (Refer pg. 218 ?? 220)
Speech community theory is a theory that focuses specifically on how different social groups teach members distinct styles of communicating and interpreting the communication of others. This theory much influenced by assumptions and idea consisted within standpointÊs theory (Refer pg. 220 ?? 226). The major scholars for speech community theory are Deborah Tannen, Suzanne Langer, Gerry Philipsen, Daniel Maltz and Ruth Borker.
In 1960's, Dell Hymes first introduced the speech community. Based on his ethnographic studies, Hymes proposed that speech community is a group of people who share not only a common language but also understanding of rules and norms that guide how members of the group practise and interpret speech activities. Main concepts of the theory are rules pertaining to communicative and
misunderstandings. This theory seeks to discover the genesis of distinct communication rules
practices by a social community. The communication rules are regular patterns in the use and interpretation of communication within particular groups. Rules are socially constructed rather than determined by forces outside of humans. To identify communication rules, scholars study interaction in particular groups, especially among the new or young members of the groups. The study investigated masculine and feminine speech communities (Refer Figure 10.1, pg. 224).
Misunderstandings can be explained clearly through speech community theory. Based on this theory, misunderstandings take place because of the different socialisation that happened between different groups, whether gender, ethnic or age perspectives (Refer pg. 223 ?? 224).
Disadvantages and criticism of speech community theory:
(a) Theory obscures human diversity.
(b) Theory fosters divisions among social groups.
(c) Theory is insufficiently critical. (Refer pg. 225 ?? 226)
Organisational Culture In this part, there are communication theories that focus on relationship
between communication and culture of the workplace. Organisational culture scholars describe and explain how communication creates, sustains and expresses the values and ideology of particular work environments. Organisational culture theories assume a reciprocal relationship between
culture and communication in which each shape is shaped by the other.
Now, the main focus of organisational culture theorists is to understand how organisational life is constituted through communication. Contemporary scholars for this theory are Michael Pacanowsky and O Donnell-Trujillo which strongly influenced by the work of anthropologist Clifford Geertz (Refer pg. 226 ?? 234).
Culture refers to the systems of shared or common meaning shared among community members (like standpoint and speech community theories). Geertz claimed that cultures are ways of life that are sustained through stories, rituals, and other symbolic activities that continuously vitalise and uphold by community.
Drawing on Geertz's general observations about culture, some organisational culture scholars have developed a theory that views organisations as cultures that are produced and reproduced through communication activities among members of organisations. Important elements in organisation are vocabulary, stories, rites and rituals (Refer pg. 227 ?? 232).
Organisational culture scholarsÊ built their theory on ethnographic research. Thus, like ethnographers in other areas of study, their research relies on thick description, that is, focus of the research is not only being given to the research finding, but also the method used to interpret the data about organisational life. Because engaging in thick description, it is extremely time consuming as
the scholars need to immerse themselves in what they studied. Apart from corporate stories, personal stories, collegial stories, rites and rituals in organisations, data for organisational culture can also be discovered in daily activities among members of organisation.
Disadvantages and criticism of organisational culture theory are as follows:
(a) Theory has limited generalisability.
Theories of Mass Communication
Mass communication refers to the communication process that aims at large audiences. Normally mass communication use tools and mediated technology like radio, television, books, magazines, computer programs and other forms of visual and print communication labelled as mass media. Mass media does not include personal kinds used by individual to interact with others on the Internet (e.g. e-mail or chatting). Two major theories discuss here are technological determinism and
cultivation theory (Refer pg. 237 ?? 256).
Technological determinism theory was developed by a popular communication scholar, Marshall McLuhan in 1960Ês. McLuhan believed that media as the critical force that determines other things. The theory of technological determinism stated that technology, especially media decisively
shapes how individuals think, feel and act and how societies organise themselves and operate.
In this situation, media history throughout the history of human civilisation is important. McLuhan claimed that the dominant media at any given time in a society determine the basis of social organisation and collective life. McLuhan divided history of human societies into four distinct media epochs:
(a) The tribal epoch
(b) The literate epoch
(c) The print epoch
(d) The electronic epoch (Refer pg. 238 ?? 239)
McLuhan is also popular because of his bold ideas or proclamations that changed our thinking about media. McLuhansÊs best-known idea is that the medium is the message. What is meant by him, is that the medium or channel of communication, determines the substance of communication and
influences our perception towards message (Refer pg. 240 ?? 242).
Moreover, McLuhan drew a basic distinction between hot and cold media. Hot media refers to mediums that include relatively complete sensory data. Thus, a person does not need to fill a lot of information to understand
the message. For example, radio, printed materials, photographs and films. On the other hand, cold media refers to mediums that demand involvement from individuals to understand its messages. An example of cold media includes telephone conversations, interactive computer games and face-to-face interactions. Hot media encourages individuals to be passive as the media supplied all information necessary for understanding and allow us to be uninvolved in learning and thinking. Cold media, in contrast, requires participation involvement and mental activity on our part. Thus, it encourages people to be active.
Disadvantages and criticism of technological determinism theory:
(a) Lack of empirical support
(b) Hyperbolic speculation
(c) Overly deterministic
Respond to the critics ?? McLuhan claimed that they are not creative. (Refer pg. 244)
Cultivation theory has been built on a long-term programme of empirical research. This theory claims that television cultivates or promotes a view of social reality that is synthetic, but the reality is influential in fostering viewers attitude, beliefs and behaviour (Refer pg. 244 ?? 249).
Major scholars for cultivation theory are George Gerbner and his colleagues at the Annenberg School of Communication in Pennsylvania, namely, Nancy Signorelli and M. Morgan.
The main concepts for this theory are cultivation, synthetic reality, mainstreaming and resonance.
Cultivation refers to the cumulative process by which television fosters specific beliefs about social reality. This meant, watching television over a long period of time has effects on viewers beliefs. Usually, heavy television viewers are more exposed to cultivation compared to light television viewers (Refer pg. 245 ?? 247).
Synthetic reality is a concept that refers to television portrayals of life influences peoples beliefs about real life. Viewers who watch a lot, tend to believe television as real life, unfortunately this is synthetic reality. Two mechanisms for the cultivation of synthetic reality are: mainstreaming and
resonance.
Mainstreaming is television's ability to stabilise and homogenise views within society. For example, if television features extensive violence in life, viewers may come to believe that violence is common. Thus, this view could permeate the mainstream in society.
Resonance is a level of comparisons between real experiences with synthetic reality as portrayed on television. For instance, a person who has been robbed, assaulted or raped is likely to identify with televised violence. Consequently, the reality of television is congruent with personal experiences. Cultivation process is easy to happen in such situation (Refer pg. 248 ?? 249).
Among the important assumptions of Cultivation Theory:
(a) Television is unique.
(b) Television forms the cultural mainstream.
(c) Television cultivates broad assumptions about life rather than specific attitudes and opinions (e.g. Man world syndrome).
(d) Television is a medium of conservative socialisation.
(e) The observable effects of television on culture are relatively small.
(f) New technologies extend televisionÊs influence.
(Refer pg. 249 ?? 252)
Disadvantages and criticisms of cultivation theory:
(a) Weak support for the theory.
(b) Incompatibilities in the theory.
(c) Neglects individual variations.
(d) Correlation versus cause; cause versus effect. Response to the criticisms ?? Gerbner rejected the criticisms. (Refer pg. 255 ?? 256)
Critical Communication Theories
Critical theories are group of communication theories that embrace the goal of reforming social life in society. Three critical theories discussed here are feminist theories, muted group theory and cultural studies theories. Feminist theories are method that study about society based on gender inequities. Feminist scholars view the distribution of society based on gender and this distribution has raised an issue about womenÊs oppression by men who are considered as dominant in society. Key concepts in feminist theories are gender, patriarchy, a patriarchal universal discourse, and multiple ways of
knowing (Refer pg. 260 ?? 265).
According to feminist scholars, gender is socially created system of values, identities and activities that are prescribed for women and men. Unlike sex, which is biologically determined, gender refers to socially produced meanings that are imposed on individuals based on time. This construction affects the relationships between women and men, thus leads to certain expectations like their roles and positions in society.
Patriarchy refers to an overall system of structures and practices in society that is concerned with values and interests of men as a group and protect their privileges, while simultaneously denying the values and interests of women as a group. It is also a social construction that was originally created by men who once dominated public life.
A patriarchal universal discourse refers to a set of language conventions that reflect a particular definition of reality. As shown by history, culture has been dominated by a masculine universe of discourse that accords priority to masculine compared to feminine. For example, the term such as housewife referred to women while men is reputed as head of the family. Feminist theorists, like many other communication theorists believe that language powerfully shapes our views of the world.
Multiple ways of knowing has been suggested by feminist theorists for the world to acknowledge other multiple ways besides masculine ways or a patriarchal universe of discourse. This is to revise the views of women's position and experiences in society are less or not important compared to men.
For instance, child care and homemaking are equally important with men working to earn income.
Criticisms of feminist theories focus on issues about social inequities between women and men:
(a) Inclusion stage ?? to increase awareness of what are experienced and what should be done to change gender construction.
(b) Revisionist stage ?? to broaden women participation in non-traditional activities and re-evaluate activities in which women have traditionally participated.
Disadvantages and criticisms of feminist theories:
(a) Fosters divisions between women and men (Refer pg. 284 ?? 285).
(b) Overstates and distorts gender differences.
(c) A monolithic view of women. (Refer pg. 265 ?? 267)
Muted group theory is a feminist theory that focuses on language and gender. Two distinctive features of the theory are:
(a) Focus on how language names experiences and therefore determines what us socially recognised in society;
(b) Close attention to the way that a dominant discourse silences, or mutes, groups that are not in the mainstream society.
Scholars for this theory include Edwin Ardener, Shirley Ardener, Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender (Refer pg. 267 ?? 273).
Major concepts that have shaped this theory are masculine bias, muted language/muted experience, and the power to name. Besides that, the theory also outlined the ways to resist dominant discourses.
Masculine bias is a pioneer concept in muted group theory. According to anthropologists Edwin Ardener and Shirley Ardener, many anthropological investigations relied entirely on male, thus the investigations were only able to explain men's experiences compared to women. This is because males generally dominate public life and consequently create the language and meanings of a culture. Masculine bias is a result from this situation? men's experiences are regarded as the entire experience of mankind, whereas women's experiences are set aside.
Since the public sphere has been dominated by men, its language or terms that names the experiences and works of men also dominate the language, thus women lack the terms to name their experiences. This situation makes women less at ease to participate in public discourse, where their experiences and language will be muted.
Hence, we tend to see the world in terms of men's perspectives. Muted group theorists do not blame men for having intentionally creating the situation. They only state that if one group of society creates a language to describe the life of all members, than another group will be muted. For example, the word childbirth that refers to the experience of giving birth is described from a male point of view. Nowadays, the word birthing is often used to describe women's experience in the process of giving birth. This is the evidence as mentioned by Spender about how influential is the power of language in giving the authority of naming to a group.
To resist dominant discourses in most societies which are decidedly masculine, women are suggested to create their own language to name their experiences. Penelope, Kramarae, Treichler and Elgin are among the women scholars that have done it. Elgin invented an entire language, called Laadan, to
capture women's experiences and interests. Kramarae and Treichler published A Feminist Dictionary as an effort to resist dominant discourses.
Disadvantages and criticisms of muted group theory:
(a) Exaggerates women's oppression.
(b) The purpose is to politicise women's struggle.
(c) Unrealistic. (Refer pg. 272 ?? 273)
Cultural studies theories are group of theory which discusses the way culture is actually produced, reproduced and changed through struggles among differing ideologies. Cultural studies do not have a single focus, but it is interested in the historical and political conditions that affect life in societies,
thus it often changes based on particular moments and conditions (Refer pg. 271 ?? 283).
Stuart Hall, John Storey, Larry Grossberg and John Fiske are among the major scholars for cultural studies. Culture refers to the texts and practices of everyday life that bring particular effects. According to cultural studies theorists, culture has two facets: firstly, culture consists of ideas, values, beliefs and understandings that are common and guide the activities and customs of the society; secondly, culture refers to the actual concrete practices characteristic of a society. These two dimensions of culture are interlinked and inseparable. Practices reflect the ideology of a society,
whereas the ideology of society is a guide for practices (Refer pg. 275 ?? 276).
The concept of ideological domination is central to cultural studies. This concept refers to a set of ideas that has the greatest power in society and adherence by most members of the society. This is done through social institutions such as government, schools, legislatures, churches and temples,
and etc. These institutions function to legitimise the prevailing ideology in society and to suppress, marginalise and silence other competing ideologies. Recently, one more institution has shown an interest to become a potent tool for ideological domination the media. An example of ideological domination through media: men are portrayed as organisational leaders, strong, intelligent and brave, while women are portrayed as housewives and always dependent on men.
The media receive extensive attention from cultural studies scholars because its influence in fortifying dominant ideologies in society. Focus of cultural studies scholar is how media become a site of battle for differing ideological. For instance, mainstream media in Malaysia often become a tool for powerful people, whereas no coverage is given to the opposition parties through the
mainstream media. The battle of ideology will be more obvious, especially during the election. Thus, media is a platform of struggle for strengthening different ideologies (Refer pg. 276 ?? 278).
Within cultural studies, it is assumed that no single cause determines ideological domination; moreover, there are numerous interlinked causes that responsible in fortifying ideological domination. Overdetermination is a concept that refers to this fact (Refer pg. 279 ?? 280).
There are three ways individuals may respond to dominant ideology through media:
(a) Uncritical acceptance of the dominant ideology.
(b) Justify the acceptance of dominant ideology through practices and cultural institution.
(c) Oppose the dominant ideology by recognising its actual goal and search for an alternative ideology.
Disadvantages and criticisms of cultural studies theories:
(a) Inaccessible
(b) Too broad in scope
(c) Lack attention to gender
(d) Too ideological (Refer pg. 281 ?? 283)
Post-modern Theorising.
Latest development in academic world has shown the importance of several new approaches that affect the theorising development in communication. Chapter 13 will focus on postmodernism that influences the process of communication theorising in the 20th century. Its emergence marks the new era after the modern period in Western social life.
There are two key concepts in discussing post-modern theorising, namely, modernity and postmodern. Modernism movement challenges the importance of moral values and religions. In contrast, it emphasises on sciences (as science is perceived to be neutral, objective and key to the human progress and development).
Hence, an individual will be assessed based on logical consideration not spiritual and emotional considerations. Modernist views individuals as rational, coherent and autonomous. They believe that individuals with such characters can produce a stable and coherent society (Refer pg. 286 ?? 288).
Postmodernism, that encompasses a broader perspective of social life and research is an intellectual and political movement that challenges modernist notions about social order. Postmodernists believed that individual and society are not consistent entities but continuously changing and revolting that reflect its surrounding. They view human beings as a kaleidoscope that always form and re-form themselves at particular time and place. Gergen refers to this as a relational self as identity comes into being as we participate in a particular relationship.
Post-modernist theorists also refer to individual as a subject because the concept is suitable for something that continuously construct and reconstruct themselves and subject to place and time. Subject is fragmented, multiple and relational self ?? not coherent autonomous and stable as claimed by modern theorists (Refer pg. 287 ?? 288, 294).
Post-modern scholars view human behaviour as localised action, namely, behaviour that affects and is influenced by institution and social practices that happen and experienced at this time. For post-modern scholars, the concepts of society and culture are fictional representation that does not really exist. Moreover, postmodernists view society as a collage of many different communities, each with own experiences, understandings and ways of living that continues in a dynamic flux. Transformation is a key concept in this approach. Postmodernists believe in the concept of pluralism. Most postmodernists also reject universal standards in cultural life as they recognise that people in
diverse circumstances and with diverse experiences will have different views (refer pg. 289).
If modernists believed in grand narratives, postmodernists challenged the narrative. This fuelled a number of new theories that sought to make sense of more limited spheres of social life (Refer pg. 291 - 292).
As postmodernists do not believe in grand narratives, thus they do not believe in society efforts as a whole, and they are uncertain about the stable and coherent society as suggested by modernists because the localised action can be seen through resistance at the local level and micro politics.
A particularly important postmodernist claim is that all phenomena, including people, are made into commodities - through the process of commodification.
Postmodernists claim that members of society were valued not for what they could produce but how much and how fast they could produce. Post-modern theories consider language the most important means by which subjects and the social order are constituted, normalised, reproduced,
challenged and changed (Refer pg. 299 ).
Meaning refers to something that arises and can only be understood from interaction between subject and language. According to Derrida, there is no single word that can represent a meaning as the word is incomplete. Every single word is sous rature, namely inadequate to describe its referent.
Meaning of every single word depends very much on its words before and after, and also the context of interaction experienced by the subject. Post-modern theorists assume that social relations, like subjects, language and meaning are constructed by social institutions and practices. Foucoult has
proposed the idea that the world view of a society is determined by discursive structures of the era (Refer pg. 299 ?? 302).
Discursive structures are deep ways of thinking about and expressing identity and conducting social life. For example, individualism is a main philosophy held by Western societies, while collectivism is very much appreciated by Eastern societies. Discursive structures have very big influences on social
relations in society. If discursive structures continuously shape and reshaped by the prevailing world view, thus social relations also will constantly changing in that way.
According to Foucault again, discourses in a society are controlled by powerful people that specify the rules to define which topics can and cannot be discussed; who may talk and who may not, and etc.
The criticisms toward post-modern perspectives:
(a) The epistemic relativism is unacceptable.
(b) Nihilistic ?? denial of any absolute basis for development of values, meanings, moral and social order.
(c) The end of human identity. (Refer pg. 302 ?? 306)
Chapter 14 reviews what have been learned throughout your exploration about specific communication theories in the textbook. It discusses the value of communication theories in knowledge and also their benefit in our daily lives. The future of communication theories is also discussed. The outcome from the discussion about communication theories is summarised in general perspectives of theorising process and reviewing the theories.
Within theorising process, communication scholars are not enthusiastic to the orthodox goals of theory. Among the controversies of the theoretical goals are:
(a) All scholars disagree the goal of theory is to predict and control; the goal of understanding is given priority.
(b) Scholars also add that the goal of theory is to bring positive social change in society.
(c) Theories are not value-free but value-laden, thus each scholar is responsible for their respective theory. (Refer pg. 308 ?? 310)
There are many standards used by scholars for evaluating theories; however they are unable to decide the hierarchy for ranking the importance of standards (which one is most important and so on) (Refer pg. 310 ?? 312).
When reviewing the theories covered in Chapter 4 until Chapter 13, it is clear that there are numerous communication theories that differ in focus and premise. Most important to remember is the difference from the perspectives of philosophical foundations and views of communication.
In terms of philosophical foundations, communication theories are varying in epistemological and ontological assumptions. Try to confirm these assumptions in the theories that you have studied.
From the views of communication also, we find that theories are different. You could confirm this matter by doing an activity Âtry it outÊ, at page 314 (Refer pg. 312 ?? 315).
A plurality of communication theories is very valuable and important for knowledge and our daily lives. We should also realise that, since philosophical foundations and theories assumptions are different, theories are not always compatible. For example, dramatism and narrative theories fit well
together, while CMM theory is less compatible with technological determinism theory. However, a plurality of communication theories must be appreciated (Refer pg. 315).
Putting theories into practice could help us cultivate understanding within certain contexts and also promote social progress (Refer pg. 315 ?? 319).
Communication theories arise in specific social contexts. It emerges from within social life and is not separated from it. The process of theorising happens as a result from the continuous efforts by scholars to find an answer to the observed phenomena both personally or within a society. Moreover,
cultural influences on theory building and development. For example, most Western theories of communication focuses on individualism, while theories developed in Asian societies are more likely to emphasise on the collective aspects (Refer pg. 319 ?? 320).
The future of communication theories are significantly influenced by the trend and disorder situation that happens in society and the world as a whole. However, the theories discussed in this textbook would certainly endure and develop according to time and situation.
TUTORIAL 3.1
Students are required to discuss activities includes as Try it out in all four chapters of Unit 3 ?? pg. 215, 225, 230, 241, 248, 251, 263, 270, 271, 276, 278, 300, 303, 311, 314 and 319.
TUTORIAL 3.2
Students are also required to explain meaning of each key term at the end of each chapter in Unit 3 ?? pg. 235, 258, 284 and 307.
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the relationships between communication and culture.
2. How are our attitudes influenced by our social locations?
3. What is meant by speech communities?
4. Explain the meaning of organisation as cultures.
5. What is meant by McLuhan with the phrase the medium is the message?
6. How does television shape the mainstream culture in society based on cultivation theory?
7. What is the correlation between gender and power based on feminism?
8. Within muted group theory, why is the power to name equivalent to the power to construct reality?
9. Explain the meaning of culture as proposed by cultural studies scholars.
10. Explain two major issues that were debated by communication scholars in the process of theorising.
11. Explain two major differences that influence the building of theories you have learned in this course.
12. Discuss how communication theory helps human life.
13. Explain the latest approaches that influence current communication scholars.
14. Explain the key concepts that become the focus of post-modern scholars.
15. Why is post-modern method said to be nihilistic?
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